M.S. Kozlova. Methods of language analysis in the late Wittgenstein's concept
[196]
1. Among the concepts of logical analysis of knowledge/language - those which belong to the XXth century, but haven't yet received adequate understanding and judgement - there are some ideas of the late Wittgenstein. Wittgenstein's philosophic investigations are united by one important topic: correlation between verbalism and reality. The main impulse of all his speculations is a clear vision of reality through the linguistic means of its refiexion. "The notion of clear representation is of fundamental importance to us. It determines the form of contemplation, the way we approach things" . A large amount of data and facts is analyzed to demonstrate that adequate view of reality - both in science and in everyday life - is difficult to achieve. The movement to it is hindered by a lot of obstacles of conctptual and linguistic character. The lack of adequacy in understanding language forms, like distorting spectacles, causes the erroneous vision of reality. The verbal pictures created by us are often represented as a piece of reality, so that we become their captives . The ability of articulate perception, of correlating verbalism and reality presupposes certain training, certain habits and skills. For the solution of this problem, a special technique, special practice of speech cklarification or analysis was elaborated by Wittgenstein. It was stressed that the research in question has a logical-grammatical character and that the problems to be solved deal with the logic of using concepts (the logic of conceptual behaviour) . We are going to offer a concise description of the peculiarities present in the late Wittgenstein's analytical concept (or even in his practice) which are so elusive, so difficult to grasp; in so doing, we shall try bring to light - to the best of our ability - all his worthwhile creative findings, at the same time, to reveal the causes of the absurdities and misrepresentations, so frequent in the attempts to interpret them.
2. The method of clarification introduced by Wittgenstein carries the conceptual charge characteristic of natural languages. It is an entirety of partical methods which criss-cross, get transformed one into another, reveal new aspects when approached from new positions. They resist any attempts to introduce delimitations or strict order into their realm, to systematize them. L.Wittgenstein was himself aware of the difficulty and confessed that his own attempts to systematize his remarks turned to be a failure . Yet, within the totality of the analytic procedures suggested by him, one can discern those of a wider scope and of a more generalized meaning. The most significant among them is the "language-game" idea/method. This is a special way of experimenting with language mentally which makes it possible to distinguish within the language - or construct artificially - all kinds of the simplest (or of more sophisticated) models of speech behaviour, which enables us to vary linguistic rules, emphasizing any, interesting to the researcher, aspect of it - in order to get a deaper insight into its nature. Such conventional "games" have referential, rather than direct, cognitive significance; their nature is auxiliary, clarifying, methodological. This method is intended to bring language into action, to turn this static entity into a constant dynamic address to the speech practice, to its usage in different contexts, in varying situations. It is aimed at revealing, through its activity, of the aspects concealed by static language. In this way, differentiation of various kinds of linguistic instruments, as well as numerous types of usings, of different communicative functions performed by them is brought about. This analytic idea is likely to find wide application not only in linguistics, but also in pedagogic practice; it can also be successful in supplementing the already existing logical devices of making language more precise (the latter seems to be especially important for humanities and humanitarian practice with their linguistic means - both rich and ambivalent as far as their spectre of meanings is concerned).
3. The procedure of language games encompasses the whole scope of methods. Among them, is the method of simplifying the language which is followed by gradual complication of it; the method of artificial distinctions; the method of bringing into action of the static conceptual speech apparatus; of varying the contexts of usage; of "deciphering" abstractions (conventional restoration of the initial word-usage), etc. The "family resemblances" method can be mentioned as an example of a relatively autonomous analytic device broadly used in Wittgenstein's works to shake the rigid notions concerning the relation between general notions and reality. Thus, while analyzing the problem of consciousness, he demonstrates how often corresponding words (meaning, thinking, understanding, ets.) generate the idea of their correspondence to some clearly outlined and homogeneous realities, However, as follows from his analysis, there exist innumerable variations of phenomena covered by a single expression, despite the fact that often "there is no one class of features characteristic of all cases" . Analytic devices concentrated around the idea of "family resemblances" are meant to overcome the illusion of literal correspondence of every notion to some unified entity (a set of features and so on). Using them reminds us every time that, to nearly every of the notions, a multifarious reality corresponds which includes a continuity of transitional stages and has no strict boundaries. Indeed, there are no pure biological, psychological or social types; as is known, in real objects, the corresponding features exist as mixed up, varied, intervowen. The analytic idea of "family resemblances", while undermining the oversimplification of notions, helps to correlate variable reality with its conceptual speech expressions in a more flexible and adequate manner.
4. Understanding the essence of the late Wittgenstein's analytic programmes and of his practical methods is hindered by the obtaining practice of reading his analytic considerations (excercises, illustrations and so on) in terns of usual theory. The result is viewing the "language-game" idea as a relativist, subjectivist theory of language, as the idea of "family resemblances" - so, it is treated as a theory of abstraction deserving severe criticism, as a frequently practiced analytical device of translating inner (mental, etc.) phenomena of psychology onto the plane of an external, available to the analysis, concrete action, i.e. as the behaviorist theory of consciousness This "shift in attitude" gives rise to various absurdities: the positions asccribed to the philosopher are those which he himself criticizes, etc. The correct reading of Wittgenstein's texts requires one to take into consideration the fact that the analytic ideas elaborated by him have practical-methodological - rather than theoretic - nature; so, they should be viewed as artificial procedures whose aim is create the habit of accuracy in correlating the verbal with the real. Meanwhile, both readers and investigators of Wittgenstein find it difficult to realize that the author of the analytic interpretation of philosophy could give up theoretical mode of thinking; that philosophy is, in his view, an activity (practice) - rather than a doctrine - aimed at clarifying the conceptual-speech forms through which the complicated, variable and dynamic reality is represented. Along with our critical, polemic attitude towards the analytic interpretation of nature and of the tasks of philosophy as to insufficient one, as to the one overlooking a whole complex of important problems , we would like to stress the need for dialectical-materialist interpretation (and pracctical application) of the authentic content present in the logical-speech analysis which is the real achievement of the XXth century analytic thought.
A.F. Griaznov. The problem of "conceptual necessity" in L.Wittgenstein's works
[203]
1. The idea of "conceptual necessity" was investigated in the socalled logic of "internal relations" of British Absolute Idealism. At the center of its metaphysics lied a justification of the necessary character of judgements with their specific conceptual unity (it was supposed that sich a unuty could not be created by lodical constants). Conceptual ties were interpreted as the products of symbolism itself and treated as entirely dependent on the related terms. Necessary and internally essentical character of conceptual ties was explained by an intermediary activity of the "Absolute". In the beginning of the 20th century Russell's logic of "external relations" and his "multiple" theory of judgement stood in opposition to the logic of Absolute Idealism; it rehabilitated independent character of relation is and pluralistic ontology. This theory explained our ability to understand judgement's sense by our direct "acquaintance" with all the constituents. Traditional subject-predicate analysis of judgement's structure was super-seded by "functional" analysis. Inspite of the fact that this early analytical logic of "external relations" was widely accepted for some period of time a restoration of the priority of "internal relations" and the idea of "conceptual necessity" took place in Anglo-American philosophy after that. And this in general was due to lodical and philosophical activity of L.Wittgenstein.
2. Wittgenstein worked out his original "picture" theory in polemic with Russellian views. Wittgensteinian theory was based on idea of conceptual unity and isomorfism of sentence's "logical form" and an elementary fact which is pictured by the sentence. His acknowledgement that the "world" consists of "facts" and not of "things" stresses purely internal relations of logical "objects". There is a close correspondence between these relations and the relations of senses of the sentences. Early Wittgenstein distinguished between "signs" (which have "material" qualities) and "symbols" (which are signs used according to the rules of "logical syntax" and which have sense). "Symbols" are conceptual by their very nature and that is why all logical relations in the Tractatus are interpreted as different kinds of conceptual ties proper. Particularly, so-called "formal concepts" have symbolic character. Amongst them Wittgenstein singles out "function" which can not be its own argument because of its conceptual nature (in F(F) notation external and internal functions are totally different in sense, categorically). Adequate logical symbolism shows the limits of its own use (and this, according to Wittgenstein, makes "theory of types" futile, because paradoxical sentences simply become impossible). In the "right" logical theory there is a unuque system ("logical space") of internal relations and that is why, e.g., even introduction of a third value in a bivalent logic inevitably gives new sense to its interpretation of "truth" and "falsity".
3. After a revaluation of the role of "strict" logical (it took place in the end og the 20-s) internal qualities of "formal concepts" were transformed in Wittgenstein's texts into "conceptually necessary" rules of "depth grammar". This was realized in his theory of "criteria". In it a statement of the form "A is a criterion of B" means that by a certain linguistic convention it is true, that if A, then B. It was declared that (internal) criterial relations were lodically more powerful than inductive evidence ("symptoms"), but at the same time were not analytical. This feature of them was exploited by Wittgenstein in order to explain the fact that in the presence of a certain criterion an event (or an object) which is connected with it may not be present. Conceptual conventions were unevenly treated as absolutely basic for all types of "linguistic practice" which serves later Wittgenstein as the model of various kinds of human activity (so-called "forms of life" - Lebensformen). The position of peculiar "conceptual determinism" (first put forward in general form by British Absolute idealists) is expressed in his texts and in the works of many post-war analytical philosophers by the "grammar" of linguistic conventions which is interpreted as the universal foundation of philosophical and scientific inquiry and common-sense approach. This signals unevenly substitution of "conceptual necessity" for objective and necessary connections and relations. Largely because of that modern analytical philosophy arrives noawdays at deep theoretical inconsistencies.
S.A. Sokuler. The conception of science in the "Tractatus logico-philosophicus"
-
It is often said that in the "Tractatus" science is opposed to philosophy as senseful propositions to senseless ones. Indeed, Wittgenstein characteries science as the totality of true, senseful propositions, as saying nothing except what can be said (4. 11; 6. 53). Also he says that "most propositions and questions, that have been written about philosophical matters, are not false, but nonsensical" (4. 003). If it isn't clear from these remarks that for Wittgenstein science is an ideal and philosophy is an aberration that hardly has any right to the existence? I think that it isn't clear at all. Trying to show this we should clarify the role of senseful - senseless distinction. This will shed some light on Wittgenstein's understanding both of science and of philosophy.
Let us have a closer look at the thesis (4. 11) of the "Tractatus": "The totality of true propositions is the total natural science (or the totality of the natural sciences)". This thesis looks at first as an overvaluation of the science. It looks as stating that all propositions of natural sciences are true. How outmoded it looks today, after Popper's critics of the verification and justification, after Kuhn's theory of the scientific revolutions, after Feyerabendian critics of science! But let us wait for a moment.
I
What is this "total natural science"? Is it the sum of all received scientific theories? The answer is "no", I think. Why? Because the total natural science is constituted by the totality of true propositions. According to the conception of the "Tractatus", a proposition is true if it is a picture of some fact. A proposition is true, if "To the configuration of the simple signs in propositional sign corresponds the configuration of the objects in the state of affaires" (3. 21).
Can the theoretical propositions of science be pictures of states of affairs? I think they cannot, for to be pictures they must either be configuration of the simple signs, or be reducible to such configuration by analysis.
Let us begin with the first possibility.
In that case theoretical terms of scientific theories become simple signs representing objects in propositions. For example, sign "gene" represents gene, sign "electron" represents electron and so on. Hence, there must be the theoretical objects such as electrons and genes in the world of the "Tractatus". But their existence is incompatible with what Wittgenstein says. For example, if there were such objects as electrons, some theoretical statements about them (stating what electron is) should become apriori. On the contrary, for Wittgenstein "there is no picture which is a priori true" (2. 225). If there were theoretical objects, some elementary statements about them could depend upon one another (for example, being connected by the causal relation). On the contrary, for Wittgenstein elementary propositions are independent (5. 134 - 5. 136). Hence the theoretical propositions of sciences cannot be configurations of simple signs representing the corresponding theoretical objects.
Now we must think about the second possibility, i.e. the possibility of a reduction of theoretical propositions to the truth-functions of the propositions, which are the configurations of the simple signs representing objects. The members of Vienna Circle tried to accomplism the reduction of this sort without success, as is well known. But Wittgenstein never tried to do this and didn's discuss such possibility in the "Tractatus". He wrote about scientific theories and its statements: "All propositions, such as the law of causation, the law of continuity in nature, the law of least expenditure etc., etc all these are a priori intuitions of possible forms of the propositions of science" (6. 34). What are "a priori intuitions of possible forms of propositions"? Anything but not the pictures of facts. Hence, by definition, they can't be senseful propositions. "Newtonian mechanics, for example, - Wittgenstein continues - brings the description of the universe to a unified form. ...Mechanics determine a form of description..." (6. 341). If so, it cant't be a picture of reality by definition of a picturing relation. So, the propositions of mechanics are senseless, too.
There are some direct evidences in support of the thesis that Wittgenstein sees the theoretical propositions of science as senseless. They can be found, for example, between the notes, taken by Fr. Waismann. So Wittgenstein have said: "Ein Naturgesetzt lasst sich nicht verifizieren und nicht falsifizieren. Vom Naturgesetzt kann man sagen, dass es weder wahr noch falsch, sondern "wahrscheinlish" ist, und "warscheinlish" bedeuted dabei: einfach, bequem. Eine Aussage ist wahr oder falsh, nie wahrscheinlich. Was wahrscheinlich ist, ist keine Aussage" (Waismann Fr. Wittgenstein und der Wiener Kreis. Oxford, 1967. S. 100). "Die Physik konstruiert ein System von Hypothesen, dargestellt als ein System von Gleichungen. Die Gleichungen der Physik konnen weder wahr noch falsch sein" (Ibid. S. 101).
So, the theoretical propositions of science violate the condition of being senseful propositions. They are not the descriptions of facts, hence they have no sense (for the sense is the fact modelled by proposition). Theoretical propositions are conventions more or less useful and simple. Strictly speaking, they are not propositions at all, because they don't satisfy the condition of bipolarity.
Hence, the scientific theories don't belong to the "total natural science", as described in (4. 11). This sound rather paradoxically. Nevertheless this does follow from Wittgenstein's own definition of a true proposition. Wittgensteinian treatment of scientific theories might be understood as his answer to the situation of the scientific revolution which had refuted such respectable scientific views as Newtonian mechanics, atomism, theory of aether in their role of the descriptions of reality. So, Wittgenstein treats scientific theories as conventions. They cannot be neither true nor false. Hence, there are no epistemological problems of their justification. In contrast with the members of Vienna Circle, Wittgenstein doesn't care about verification of scientific theories or elimination of theoretical terms because he doesn't believe that theories need some epistemological foundation or justification of their truth. They need not, becauce they are in reality pseudopropositions.
All that has been said pose a problem regarding Wittgenstein's treatment of philosophical propositions. Most of them are senseless, he says. But so are most of the scientific propositions, as we have seen. And even more: propositions of mathematics violaty the condition of bipolarity too, so they are pseudopropositions. The law of logic, as Wittgenstein says, are without sense (4. 461). (Though he doesn't call them senseless). He states that "tautology and contradiction are not pictures of reality" (4. 462).
II
We have seen so far that scientific theories, mathematics, logic are situated outside the sphere of senseful propositions. We have discovered therefore that a number of Timportant and respectable intellectual activities generate senseless propositions. No wonder that Wittgenstein writes a treatise on philosophy confessing that its propositions are senseless. Contrary to what is often said, it is not a full-size paradox. Wittgenstein realizes the significance of various propositions violating his conditions of being a senseful proposition.
How can we understand then Wittgenstein's attack upon philosophical propositions and problems that are not false but senseless? Why does he attacks philosophy and doesn't attack physics or mathematics? As we have seen, the senselessness cannot be an explication here, - or, at least, it cannot be a full explication. We need something else to explain this.
Phycical laws and hypothesis are not senseful propositions, but they are devices for generating such propositions. They serve to provide us with them. Hence, they are auxiliary to the sphere of senseful.
About mathematical propositions it is written in the "Tractatus": "In life it is never a mathematical propositions we need, but we use mathematical propositions only in order to infer from propositions which do not belong to mathematics to other which equally do not belong to mathematics" (6. 211).
Logical propositions give us the forms of inferences of some senseful propositions from other. They are auxiliary, too, Hence, propositions of scientific theories, of mathematics and logic serve us to move from some senseful propositions to others. They are intermediates.
What about philosophy? Wittgenstein's own propositions in the "Tractatus" "are elucidatory in this way: he who understands me finally recognizes them as senseless, when he has climbed out through them, on them, over them. (He must so to speek throw away the ladder after he has climbed up on it). He must surmount these propositions; then he sees the world rightly" (6. 54). So, the propositions of his own "Tractatus" are also intermediate and auxiliary. As such they have a right to the existence. But they are intermediate in the manner different from that of the propositions of scientific theories, of mathematics and logic. For the latters serve to pass from propositions to propositions. The propositions of the "Tractatus" serve to pass from propositions to the insight introducing into the sphere of what can't be said by propositions. Here is a pecularity of philosophy.
So we can say: Wittgenstein doesn't denounce philosophy because of its senselessness. For him the sphere of senseless propositions are acceptable but only as intermediate and auxiliary. The proper place of such propositions is in between.
On the other hand, however, senseless propositions have no right to imitate senseful propositions, to pretend to be "about" their proper objects. Thus, Wittgenstein denies the independent existence of mathematical objects, of logical objects; he doesn't accept the existence of theoretical objects of science. Also, he denies the existence of special objects of philosophy such as "the mental thing", "the I". There is no such thing in the world. Why is Wittgenstein so sure? Because philosophical statements about "the I" are apriori. So they cannot be descriptions of some thing in the world. As Wittgenstein clearly puts it: "Where in the world is a metaphysical subject to be noted? You say that this case is altogether like that of the eye and the field of sight. But you do not really see the eye. ...This is connected with the fact that no part of our experience is also a priori... There is no order of things a priori" (5. 633; 5. 634).
What is apriori, can't be a description of reality, because the description must be falsifying or verifying by reality itself. It is different with the apriori statement. What is apriori is connected with our modes of descriptions of reality, it is the syntax of our descriptions. Logic, mathematics and philosophy are apriori. Theoretical hypothesises of science are not the inferences from factual statements, they are not simply falsified by experience and so they can be treated as apriori too. Wittgenstein always claims the strict demarcation between empirical and syntactical, between descriptions and apriori postulation. This demarcation is for him a necessary condition of clarity and intellectual honesty. This demarcation is more important for the understanding of his thought than the distinction between philosophical propositions and scientifical hypothesises and laws.