Введение

1. H. Kohn The Twentieth Century: a Midway Account of the Western World (London, 1950), p. 65.

2. T. Todorov Hope and Memory: Refl ections on the Twentieth Century (London, 2003), pp. 75–7.

3. Todorov, Hope and Memory, p. 82.

4. A. Besançon ‘Nazisme et communisme, également criminels’, Vest européen, 35 (1997), pp. 3–6. See also W. Dlugoborski ‘Das Problem des Vergleichs von Nationalsozialismus und Stalinismus’ in D. Dahlmann and G. Hirschfeld (eds) Lager, Zwangsarbeit, Vertreibung und Deportation (Essen, 1999), pp. 19–28; E. Jahn’Zum Problem der Vergleichbarkeit von Massenverfolgung und Massenvernichtung’ in ibid., pp. 29–51.

5. S. Courtois, N. Werth, et al. The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge, Mass., 1999).

6. D. Rayfi eld Stalin and his Hangmen (London, 2004). On Hitler, R. G. Waite The Psychopathie God: Adolf Hitler (New York, 1978); E. H. Schwaab Hitler’s Mind: A Plunge into Madness (New York, 1992); F. Redlich Hitler: Diagnosis of a Destructive Prophet (Oxford, 1999), esp. ch. 9.

7. A. Bullock Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives (London, 1991).

8. On Hitler there is the standard two-volume biography by I. Kershaw Hitler: Hubris 1889–1936 (London, 1998) and Hitler: Nemesis 1936–1945 (London, 2000). On Stalin, D. Volkogonov Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (London, 1991); S. Sebag Montefi ore Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (London, 2003).

9. On Germany see M. Burleigh The Third Reich: a New History (London, 2000); on the Soviet Union, R. Service A History of Twentieth-Century Russia (London, 1997).

10. R. H. McNeal Stalin: Man and Ruler (London, 1988), p. 237.

11. F. Genoud (ed.) The Testament of Adolf Hitler (London, 1960), p. 100, entry for 26 February 1945.

12. H. Heiber and D. M. Glantz (eds) Hitler and His Generals: Military Conferences 1942–1945 (London, 2003), p. 388, meeting of the Führer with General Reinecke, 7 January 1944.

13. On Stalin see E. van Ree The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin (London, 2002). On Hitler, R. Zitelmann Hitler: the Politics of Seduction (London, 1999); F. L. Kroll Utopie als Ideologie: Geschichtsdenken und politisches Handeln im Dritten Reich (Paderborn, 1998).

14. On German infl ation G. Feldman The Great Disorder: Politics, Economics, and Society in the German Infl ation 1914–1924 (Oxford, 1993); on Soviet infl ation L. E. Hubbard Soviet Money and Finance (London, 1936), chs. 1, 4.

15. V. Serge, The Case of Comrade Tulayev (London, 1968), p. 88.

 

Глава 1

1. A. Hitler Mein Kampfe ed. D. C. Watt (London, 1969).

2. R. Service Lenin (London, 2000), pp. 462–5.

3. Service, Lenin, p. 467; E. Radzinsky Stalin (London, 1996), pp. 193–4.

4. Service, Lenin, p. 469.

5. B. Bazhanov Avec Staline dans le Kremlin (Paris, 1930), p. 43.

6. D. Volkogonov Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (London, 1991), pp. 93–4; Bazhanov, Avec Staline dans le Kremlin, p. 48.

7. E. Hanfstaengl Hitler: the Missing Years (London, 1957), p. 108.

8. L. Gruchmann and R. Weber (eds) Der Hitler-Prozess 1924: Wortlaut der Hauptverhandlung vor den Volksgericht München

(4 vols, Munich, 1997) vol. i, pp. xxxv – xxxvii.

9. O. Gritschner Der Hitler-Prozess und sein Richter Georg Neithardt (Munich, 2001), p. 42.

10. Gruchmann and Weber, Der Hitler-Prozess, vol. iv, p. 1591.

11. Hanfstaengl, Hitler, p. 114; W. R. Hess (ed.) Rudolf Hess: Briefe, 1908–1933 (Munich 1987), p. 322, letter from Hess to Use Pröhl, 12 May 1924.

12. Gritschner, Der Hitler-Prozess, p. 62.

13. On Stalin, W. Duranty Stalin and Co: The Politburo and the Men who Rule Russia (London, 1949), p. 39; on Hitler, Imperial War

Museum, Speer Collection, Box 369, Part III, exploitation of Albert Speer, ‘Adolf Hitler’, 19 Oct 1945, p. 19. See too, T. Junge Until the Final Hour. Hitler’s Last Secretary (London, 2003), p. 130, who recalled Hitler’s comment after the bomb exploded at his headquarters in July 1944: ‘Well, ladies, everything turned out all right again. Yet more proof that Fate has chosen me for my mission.’ See too, W. S. Allen (ed.) The Infancy of Nazism: The Memoirs of Ex-Gauleiter Albert Krebs 1923–1933 (New York, 1976), p. 181: ‘Providence,’ Hess told Krebs in 1931, ‘has always inspired him [Hitler] to do the right thing.’

14. Duranty, Stalin and Co, p. 38.

15. On his medical history N. Romano-Petrova Stalin’s Doctor: Stalin’s Nurse: A Memoir (Princeton, NJ, 1984), pp. 5–6.

16. On Stalin’s many revolutionary nicknames see The Life of Stalin: a Symposium (London, 1930), p. 3; on Siberia A. V. Baikaloff I Knew Stalin (London, 1940), pp. 27–9.

17. See for example Joseph Stalin: a Short Biography (Moscow, 1949), p. 55, ‘Stalin was Lenin’s closest associate. He had direct charge of all the preparations for the insurrection [in 1917]’ or p. 76, ‘It was Stalin who directly inspired and organized the major victories of the Red Army [in the civil war]’. The same portrait appears in Short History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Moscow, 1942) (so-called ‘Short Course’) pp. 206–7.

18. Joseph Stalin Works, vol. iii, p. 67, ‘What did we expect from the conference?’ in Soldatskaya Pravda, 6 May 1917.

19. Stalin, Works, vol. iii, p. 408, Speech at a meeting of the Central Committee, 16 October 1917.

20. R. Tucker, Stalin as Revolutionary 1879–1929 (New York, 1973), pp. 179–82.

21. Cited in Tucker, Stalin, pp. 178–9; Trotsky’s remark in D. Volkogonov Trotsky: The eternal revolutionary (London, 1996), p. 322.

22. Baikaloff, I Knew Stalin, p. 29.

23. Tucker, Stalin, p. 181; S. Graham Stalin: an Impartial Study of the Life and Work of Joseph Stalin (London, 1931), p. 39.

24. M. Voslensky Nomenklatura: Anatomy of the Soviet Ruling Class (London, 1984), p. 47.

25. Duranty, Stalin and Co, p. 30; E. Lyons Stalin: Czar of all the Russians (London, 1940), pp. 176–7; Baikaloff, I Knew Stalin, p. 28, ‘He spoke haltingly, with a strong Georgian accent; his speech was dull and dry’; Graham, Stalin, pp. 117–19.

26. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, pp. 225–9.

27. Tucker, Stalin, p. 175. ‘There is a dogmatic Marxism,’ Stalin said in a debate in August 1917, ‘and a creative Marxism. I stand on the ground of the latter.’

28. The story of the cutlery in A. H. Birse Memoirs of an Interpreter (London, 1967), p. 160.

29. Tucker, Stalin, p. 212.

30. Baikaloff, I Knew Stalin, p. 85, repeating a story told by Noah Dzhordania.

31. Baikaloff, I Knew Stalin, p. 84.

32. Lyons, Stalin: Czar, p. 175; see too his account in E. Lyons Assignment in Utopia (London, 1937), pp. 381–9: ‘his swarthy face’ had, Lyons recalled, ‘a friendly, almost benignant look’.

33. Graham, Stalin, p. 119: ‘Calm and immobile sits Stalin,’ wrote one observer, ‘with the stone face of a prehistoric dragon, in which alone the eyes are living.’

34. Graham, Stalin, p. 79; Tucker, Stalin, pp. 21 off.

35. S. Sebag Montefi ore Stalin: the Court of the Red Tsar (London, 2003), pp. 1–18 on the suicide of his second wife; A. Reiss (ed.) Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics. Conversations with Felix Chuev (Chicago, 1993), pp. 177–8 on Stalin’s drinking habits: ‘Stalin didn’t drink much, although he pushed others to do it. Apparently he considered it a useful way to test people.’

36. Interview with Dmitri Volkogonov, episode 1, Russia’s War documentary, 1997.

37. Tucker, Stalin, p. 209.

38. Graham, Stalin, p. 93.

39. A. Amba I Was Stalin’s Bodyguard (London, 1952) p. 69.

40. E. W. Tennant True Account (London, 1957), pp. 182–3.

41. On his liking for the Austrian Jewish composer before 1914 see B. Hamann Hitler’s Vienna: a Dictator’s Apprenticeship (London, 1999), pp. 64–6, 349.

42. Hamman, Hitler’s Vienna, pp. 398–402; W. Maser (ed.) Hitler’s Letters and Notes (New York, 1977), pp. 27–31.

43. Maser, Letters and Notes, p. 45, letter from Hitler to Anna Popp, 20 October 1914.

44. Maser, Letters and Notes, pp. 52–5, letter from Hitler to Joseph Popp, 1 November 1914.

45. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 150.

46. Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 186–7. See an analysis of Hitler’s psychological state in F. Redlich Hitler: Diagnosis of a Destructive

Prophet (New York, 1999), pp. 286–317.

47. A. Joachimsthaler Korrektur einer Biographie: Adolf Hitler 1908–1920 (Munich, 1989), pp. 250–53.

48. F. Reck-Malleczewen Diary of a Man in Despair (London, 1995), pp. 22–3.

49. H. Rauschning Hitler Speaks (London, 1939), p. 68; see too the description by one of his interpreters, Eugen Dollmann, in Public Record Offi ce, London, WO 218/4475 Interrogation Report on SS Oberfüehrer Dollmann [n.d. Aug. 1945], pp. 1–2.

50. H. Hoffmann Hitler Was My Friend (London, 1955), p. 196.

51. Junge, Until the Final Hour, p. 44.

52. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 98.

53. IWM Speer Collection, Box S366, Evaluation Report 241, First Prelimnary Report on Hjalmar Schacht, 31 July 1945, p. 1.

54. A. Miskolczy Hitler’s Library (Budapest, 2003), ch. 1.

55. F.-L. Kroll Utopie als Ideologie: Geschichtsdenken und politisches Handeln im Dritten Reich (Paderborn, 1998), pp. 32–4, 56–64; E. Syring Hitler: seine politische Utopie (Frankfurt am Main, 1994), pp. 22–9, 51–93; J. Hermand

Der alte Traum vom neuen Reich: völkische Utopien und Nationalsozialismus (Frankfurt am Main, 1988), pp. 147–56, 215ff.

56. See for example P. Pulzer The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria (London, 1988), pp. 121ff., 195–207. In May 1918 the small Austrian ‘Workers’ Party’ changed its name to German National Socialist Workers’ Party. ‘National socialist’ ideas were central to much Austrian radical nationalism before 1914. See too, K. D. Bracher The German Dictatorship: the Origins, Structure and Consequences of National Socialism (London, 1971), pp. 72–9.

57. Kroll, Utopie als Ideologie, pp. 49–56; Syring, Hitler, pp. 40–4; P. Longerich The Unwritten Order: Hitler’s Role in the Final Solution (Stroud, 2001), pp. 15–26; K.-U. Merz Das Schreckbild: Deutschland und der Bolschewismus 1917 bis 1921 (Frankfurt am Main, 1995), pp. 457–71.

58. Rauschning, Hitler Speaks, pp. 208–9; Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 96–7.

59. Rauschning, Hitler Speaks, p. 211.

60. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 269.

61. On Hitler’s medical history Redlich, Hitler: Diagnosis, pp. 223–54.

62. G. Ward Price I Know These Dictators (London, 1937), pp. 9–10; PRO, WO 218/4775, Dollmann interrogation, p. 1.

63. Ward Price, I Know These Dictators, pp. 16–17; see too the account in K. Krause Zehn Jahre Kammerdiener bei Hitler (Hamburg,

1990), pp. 14–21. On champagne over Pearl Harbor see Liddell Hart Archive, King’s College, Hechler Collection, fi le 1, ‘The enemy side of the hill’, p. 93.

64. Krause, Zehn Jahre, pp. 31–2; Junge, Until the Final Hour, pp. 67–70 on Hitler’s eating habits and hostility to meat-eaters.

65. Junge, Until the Final Hour, p. 114.

66. Miskolczy, Hitler’s Library, pp. 3–5.

67. E. H. Schwaab Hitler’s Mind: a Plunge into Madness (New York, 1992), p. 29.

68. Schwaab, Hitler’s Mind, p. 43.

69. F. Genoud (ed.) The Testament of Adolf Hitler: the Hitler-Bormann Documents (London, 1961), p. 95, entry for 25 February 1945.

70. Allen (ed.), Infancy of Nazism, p. 165.

71. Tucker, Stalin, pp. 309–10 on the collective leadership principle; p. 319 for Bukharin quotation.

72. Graham, Stalin, p. 121.

73. I. Zbarsky and S. Hutchinson Lenin’s Embalmers (London, 1998), pp. 11–12; N. Tumarkin Lenin Lives! The Lenin Cult in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), pp. 174–5.

74. J. Stalin Problems of Leninism (Moscow, 1947), pp. 13–93, ‘The Foundations of Leninism’; Tucker, Stalin, pp. 316–24; R. W. Daniels The Conscience of the Revolution: Communist Opposition in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1960), pp. 236–8.

75. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, p. 48, ‘On the death of Lenin’, speech of 26 January 1924 to Second All-Union Congress of Soviets.

76. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, pp. 189–90, ‘Foundations of Leninism’, Pravda, May 1924.

77. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, p. 47.

78. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, pp. 191–2.

79. Graham, Stalin, pp. 78–9.

80. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, pp. 104–5. On the contest with Trotsky see too R. W. Daniels Trotsky, Stalin and Socialism (Boulder, Colo., 1991); Y. Felshtinsky ‘Lenin, Trotsky, Stalin and the Left Opposition in the USSR, 1918–1928’, Cahiers du Monde russe et soviétique, 31 (1990), pp. 570–73.

81. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, p. 373, Trotskyism or Leninism?’ speech 19 November 1924; Tucker, Stalin, pp. 340–44.

82. Tucker, Stalin, pp. 353–4.

83. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 134.

84. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy’, p. 113.

85. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 135.

86. L. Trotsky My Life: an Attempt at an Autobiography (London, 1970), p. 554.

87. Stalin, On the Opposition, p. 865, speech at plenum of the Central Committee, 23 October 1927.

88. Stalin, On the Opposition, pp. 867, 883.

89. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, pp. 175–8; Zbarsky and Hutchinson, Lenin’s Embalmers, pp. 61–2 for the description of Bukharin. See too S. Cohen Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography 1888–1938 (New York, 1980) for the standard account.

90. On the emergence of the ‘right opposition’ see C. Merridale, ‘The Reluctant Opposition: the Right “Deviation” in Moscow 1928’, Soviet Studies, 41 (1989), pp. 382–400.

91. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 177.

92. Merridale, ‘Reluctant Opposition’, pp. 384–8; see too idem, Moscow Politics and the Rise of Stalin: the Communist Party in the Capital 1925–32 (London, 1990) esp. chs 2–3; R. Medvedev Nikolai Bukharin: The Last Years (New York, 1980), pp. 17–18.

93. A. Avtorkhanov Stalin and the Soviet Communist Party: a Study in the Technology of Power (Munich, 1959) pp. 117–18.

94. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 186; Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Communist Party, pp. 124–5, 152–3. For a more critical assessment of the claim for a right ‘deviation’ see M. David-Fox ‘Memory, Archives, Politics. The Rise of Stalin in Avtorkhanov’s Technology of Power\ Slavic Review, 54 (1995), pp. 988–1003. On Molotov’s elevation, see D. Watson Molotov and Soviet Government: Sovnarkom, 1930–41 (London, 1996), pp. 27–44; R. G. Suny ‘Stalin and his Stalinism: power and authority in the Soviet Union, 1930–53’ in I. Kershaw and M. Lewin (eds) Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 33–5.

95. Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Communist Party, pp. 156–7; J. Brooks Thank You, Comrade Stalin! Soviet Public Culture from Revolution to Cold War (Princeton, NJ, 2000), pp. 59–61; J. Gooding Rulers and Subjects: Government and People in Russia 1801–1991 (London, 1996), pp. 199–200.

96. D. Orlow The History of the Nazi Party: Volume I, 1919–1933 (Newton Abbot, 1973), p. 49.

97. Orlow, History of the Nazi Party: I, pp. 52–3.

98. Hess, Rudolf Hess: Briefe, p. 363, letter from Hess to Klara and Fritz Hess, 2 March 1925. Speech in C. Vollnhals (ed.) Hitler: Reden, Schriften und Anordnungen Februar 1925 bis Januar 1933 (12 vols, Munich, 1992), i, p. 14–28.

99. P. Stachura Gregor Strasser and the Rise of Nazism (London, 1983), pp. 11–26; U. Kissenkoetter Gregor Strasser und die NSDAP (Stuttgart, 1978), pp. 22–5.

100. Stachura, Strasser, p. 38.

101. Hess, Rudolf Hess: Briefe, p. 368, letter from Hess to Klara and Fritz Hess, 24 April 1925.

102. Orlow, History of the Nazi Party: I, pp. 68–70; I. Kershaw Hitler: Hubris 1889–1936 (London, 1998), pp. 274–7.

103. Stachura, Strasser, p. 51; see too Kissenkoetter, Gregor Strasser, p. 24.

104. Stachura, Strasser, pp. 51–3; see on Hitler’s economic views R. Zitelmann Hitler: The Politics of Seduction (London, 1999), esp. part iv, pp. 198–269.

105. Orlow, History of the Nazi Party: I, pp. 135–6, 143.

106. P. Longerich Die braunen Bataillone: Geschichte der SA (Munich, 1989), pp. 15–33; Orlow, History of the Nazi Party: I, pp. 211–13.

107. K. Gossweiler Die Strasser-Legende (Berlin, 1994), p. 19; Kissenkoetter, Gregor Strasser, pp. 41–7.

108. C. Fischer Stormtroopers: a Social, Economic and Ideological Analysis 1929–1935 (London, 1983) pp. 5–6; H. A. Turner (ed.) Hitler: Memoirs of a Confi dant (New Haven, Conn. 1985), pp. 28–31.

109. Stachura, Strasser, p. 101.

110. Stachura, Strasser, pp. 101–13; Kissenkoetter, Gregor Strasser, pp. 123–30, 162–77.

111. Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Communist Party, p. 124.

112. S. Cohen Rethinking the Soviet Experience: Politics and History since 1917 (Oxford, 1985), ch. 3. See the discussion in S. Blank ‘Soviet Institutional Development during NEP: A Prelude to Stalinism’, Russian History, 9 (1982), pp. 325–46; Daniels, Conscience of the Revolution, pp. 398–401, 408–11; S. Farber Before Stalinism: the Rise and Fall of Soviet Democracy (Cambridge, 1990) pp. 149 ff. on the absence of any independent political activity long before Stalinism.

113. Stachura, Strasser, p. 124; Medvedev, Nikolai Bukharin, p. 161.

114. Stalin, Works, vol. xiii, p. 41, speech to First Ail-Union Conference of Leading Personnel of Socialist Industry, 4 February 1931.

115. Stalin, Works, vol. xiii, p. 42.

116. H. Kuromiya Stalin’s Industrial Revolution: Politics and Workers, 1928–1932 (Cambridge, 1988), p. 5.

117. Kuromiya, Stalin’s Industrial Revolution, p. 17; J. Hughes ‘Capturing the Russian Peasantry: Stalinist Grain Procurement Policy and the “Urals-Siberian” Method’, Slavic Review, 53 (1994), pp. 77–8. See too J. Hughes Stalin, Siberia and the crisis of the New Economic Policy (Cambridge, 1991), esp. chs 5–6.

118. Hughes, ‘Capturing the Peasantry’, p. 87; J. Hughes ‘Re-evaluating Stalin’s Peasant Policy 1928–30’ in J. Pallot (ed.) Transforming Peasants: Society, State and the Peasantry 1861–1930 (London, 1998), pp. 242–50, 255–6.

119. Hughes, ‘Capturing the Peasantry’, pp. 80–81; M. Lewin Russian Peasants and Soviet Power: a Study of Collectivization (New York, 1975) chs 16–17.

120. R. C. Nation Black Earth, Red Star: A History of Soviet Security Policy 1917–1991 (Ithaca, NY, 1992), p. 61; Kuromiya, Stalin’s Industrial Revolution, p. 15; on the fate of bourgeois experts see N. Jasny Soviet Economists of the Twenties (Cambridge, 1972), pp. 119, 127, 144.

121. R. W. Davies, M. Harrison and S. G. Wheatcroft (eds) The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union 1913–1945 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 113–14, 290.

122. L. Viola Peasant Rebels under Stalin: Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance (Oxford, 1996), pp. 105, 139–40; see too T. Macdonald ‘A Peasant Rebellion in Stalin’s Russia’ in L. Viola (ed.) Contending with Stalinism: Soviet Power and Popular Resistance in the 1930s (Ithaca, NY, 2002), pp. 84–108.

123. Viola, Peasant Rebels, pp. 171–2.

124. Davies, Harrison and Wheatcroft, Economic Transformation, p. 68.

125. R. W. Davies, O. V. Khlevniuk, E. A. Rees, L. P. Kosheleva and L. A. Rogovaya (eds) The Stalin-Kaganovich Correspondence

1931–1936 (New Haven, Conn. 2003) pp. 180–81, letter from Stalin to Kaganovich, 11 August 1932. On the famine see S. G. Wheatcroft ‘More Light on the Scale of Repression and Excess Mortality in the Soviet Union in the 1930s’ in J. A. Getty and R. Manning (eds) Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993) pp. 278–89. Extrapolations from the demographic data suggest excess mortality of 4–5 million in total attributable to famine and its effects.

126. J. Rossman ‘A Workers’ Strike in Stalin’s Russia’ in Viola (ed.), Contending with Stalinism, pp. 45–6; J. Haslam ‘Political Opposition to Stalin and the Origins of the Terror in Russia, 1932–1936’, The Historical Journal, 29 (1986), pp. 396–9; B. Starkov ‘Trotsky and Ryutin: from the history of the anti-Stalin resistance in the 1930s’ in T. Brotherstone and P. Dukes (eds) The Trotsky Reappraisal (Edinburgh, 1992), pp. 71–3.

127. Kuromiya, Stalin’s Industrial Revolution, p. 21.

128. R. G. Suny ‘Stalin and his Stalinism’, in I. Kershaw and M. Lewin (eds) Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 46–7.

129. Lewin, Russian Peasants, p. 448.

130. R. Gaucher Opposition in the USSR, 1917–1967 (New York, 1969), p. 270.

131. The standard work is H. James The German Slump: Politics and Economics 1924–1936 (Oxford, 1986); see too J. von Krüdener (ed.) Economic Crisis and Political Collapse: the Weimar Republic 1924–1933 (Oxford, 1990).

132. S. Haffner Defying Hitler: a Memoir (London, 2002), p. 68.

133. D. Schumann Politisches Gewalt in der Weimarer Republik 1919–1933 (Essen, 2000), pp. 320, 335–7.

134. Zitelmann, Hitler, pp. 33–53, 62–75. ‘Our Party,’ Hitler announced in a speech in 1920, ‘must have a revolutionary character’; or in 1921, The salvation of Germany can only come… through revolution’ (p. 62).

135. T. Abel Why Hitler Came into Power: an Answer Based on the Original Life Stories of Six Hundred of his Followers (New York, 1938), p. 93.

136. Haffner, Defying Hitler, p. 71.

137. Stachura, Strasser, p. 76.

138. See P. Fritzsche Germans into Nazis (Cambridge, Mass., 1998), pp. 209ff. In general see C. Fischer The Rise of the Nazis (Manchester, 2002); M. Broszat Hitler and the Collapse of Weimar Germany (Leamington Spa, 1987); H. A. Turner Hitler’s Thirty Days to Power: January 1933 (London, 1996).

139. Avtorkhanov, Stalin and the Communist Party, pp. 1–2.

140. J. Biesemann Das Ermächtigungsgesetz als Grundlage der Gesetzgebung im nationalsozialistischen Staat (Münster, 1985), pp. 279–82.

141. Stalin, Works, vol. xiii, p. 354.

142. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 198.

143. J. Toland Adolf Hitler (New York, 1976), p. 361; H. Burden The Nuremberg Party Rallies: 1923–39 (London, 1967), pp. 76, 80–81.

144. Longerich, Die braunen Bataillone, p. 184. By mid-1934 the SA numbered 4.5 million. On the background see K. Heiden The Führer (New York, 1944), pp. 570–82; Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, pp. 500–507.

145. Kershaw, Hitler: Hubris, p. 517.

146. Details in H.-G. Seraphim (ed.) Das politische Tagebuch Alfred Roenbergs aus den Jahren 1934/35 und 1939/40 (Göttingen, 1956), pp. 33–5.

147. M. Domarus Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen 1932–1945: Band I Triumph (Munich, 1965), p. 405.

148. Domarus, Hitler: Reden, p. 406.

149. Domarus, Hitler: Reden, pp. 424–5.

150. A. Knight Who Killed Kirov? The Kremlin’s Greatest Mystery (New York, 1999), p. 115.

151. Knight, Who Killed Kirov? pp. 172–4; Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 200.

152. Knight, Who Killed Kirov? pp. 169–70; Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, pp. 205–6.

153. Knight, Who Killed Kirov? p. 183.

154. Knight, Who Killed Kirov? pp. 197–8; Getty and Manning, Stalinist Terror, pp. 45–9; M. Lenoe ‘Did Stalin Kill Kirov and Does it Matter?’, Journal of Modern History, 74 (2002), pp. 352–80.

155. On the ‘Lex Kirov’ Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, p. 208.

156. V. M. Berezhkov At Stalin’s Side (New York, 1994), p. 10.

 

Глава 2

1. D. Beetham Max Weber and the Theory of Modern Politics (London, 1974), p. 236.

2. A. Avtorkhanov The Communist Party Apparatus (Chicago, 1966), p. 52.

3. V. Garros, N. Korenevskaya and T. Lahusen (eds) Intimacy and Terror: Soviet Diaries of the 1930s (New York, 1995), pp. 205–6, diary of Galina Shtange, 12 December 1937, p. 357, diary of Lyubov Shaporina, 12 December 1937.

4. Garros et al., Intimacy and Terror, p. 206.

5. Garros et al., Intimacy and Terror, p. 357.

6. S. Labin Stalin’s Russia (London, 1949), p. 34.

7. L. Siegelbaum and A. Sokolov (eds) Stalinism as a Way of Life (New Haven, Conn., 2000), pp. 159–63; K.Petrone Life Has Become More Joyous, Comrades: Celebrations in the Time of Stalin (Bloomington, Ind., 2000), p. 175.

8. S. Davies Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia: Terror, Propaganda and Dissent 1934–1941 (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 102–12.

9. Davies, Popular Opinion, p. 112.

10. P. Hubert Uniformierter Reichstag: Die Geschichte der Pseudo-Volksvertretung 1933–1945 (Düsseldorf, 1992), pp. 88, 265; R. Gellateley Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany (Oxford, 2001), pp. 15–16.

11. Hubert, Uniformierter Reichstag, p. 281.

12. Hubert, Uniformierter Reichstag, pp. 249–51, 274; IWM, FO 645, Box 156, testimony of Albert Göring, 25 September 1945, for details on voting ‘no’.

13. Hubert, Uniformierter Reichstag, p. 237.

14. J. Stalin Problems of Leninism (Moscow, 1947), p. 557, ‘On the Draft Constitution of the U.S.S.R.’, speech of 25 November 1936.

15. Ibid.

16. H. von Kotze and H. Krausnick (eds) ‘Es spricht der Führer’: 7 exemplarische Hitler-Reden (Gütersloh, 1966), p. 142, speech by Hitler to party district leaders, 29 April 1937.

17. Stalin, Problems, pp. 550–51; see too G. B. Carson Electoral Practices in the USSR (New York, 1955), pp. 50–52.

18. Hubert, Uniformierter Reichstag, pp. 61, 87; Kotze and Krausnick, ‘Es spricht der Führer’, p. 120.

19. Kotze and Krausnick, ‘Es spricht der Führer’, p. 140.

20. G. Neesse Die NSDAP: Versuch einer Rechtsdeutung (Stuttgart, 1935), pp. 143–5; Hubert, Uniformierter Reichstag, p. 240.

21. H. Rauschning Hitler Speaks (London, 1939), p. 199. Hitler told Rauschning that ‘there is no such thing as unlimited power… Even the most extreme autocrat is compelled to correct his absolute will by existing conditions.’

22. A. L. Unger Constitutional Development in the USSR: a Guide to Soviet Constitutions (London, 1981), pp. 50–52, 59–72.

23. The Constitution of the USSR. (Moscow, 1937), pp. 7–9.

24. Hubert, Uniformierter Reichstag, pp. 59–61; J. Biesemann Das Ermächtigungsgesetz als Grundlage der Gesetzgebung im nationalsozialistischen Staat (Münster, 1985), pp. 51–4, 381–2. On Hitler’s ideas of an advisory senate, Mein Kampf, vol. ii, pp. 501–2.

25. Hubert, Uniformierter Reichstag, pp. 58–63; M. Domarus (ed.) Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen 1932–1945: Band I, Triumph (Munich, 1965), p. 429; M. Moll (ed.) ‘Führer-Erlasse’, 1939–1945 (Stuttgart, 1997), pp. 49–50.

26. Labin, Stalin’s Russia, p. 31.

27. E. Lyons Assignment in Utopia (London, 1937).

28. E. van Ree The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin (London, 2002), pp. 148–9; see too J. Stalin Works (13 vols, Moscow, 1953–

55), vol. i., pp. 371–2 for his early views in ‘Anarchism or Socialism’, December 1906/January 1907. He distinguished two kinds of dictatorship – of the majority, ‘dictatorship of the street, of the masses, a dictatorship directed against all oppressors’, and a dictatorship of a minority or clique, which ‘tightens the noose around the neck of the majority’.

29. E. Mawdsley and S. White The Soviet Elite from Lenin to Gorbachev: The Central Committee and its Members 1917–1991 (Oxford, 2000), pp. 126–7; D. Volkogonov Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (London, 1991), p. 217.

30. M. David-Fox and D. Hoffmann ‘The Politburo Protocols 1919–40’, Russian Review, 55 (1996), pp. 99–100; I. Pavlova The Strength and Weakness of Stalin’s Power’, in N. Rosenfeldt, B. Jensen and E. Kulavig (eds) Mechanisms of Power in the Soviet Union (London, 2000), p. 30; O. V. Khlevniuk Politburo – mekhanizmy politicheskoi vlasti v 1930-e gody (Moscow, 1996), pp. 330–31.

31. Mawdsley and White, Soviet Elite, p. 126; Khlevniuk, Politburo, pp. 288, 332–3; J. Löwenhardt, J. Ozinga and E. van Ree The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Politburo (London, 1992), pp. 34–5.

32. Khlevniuk, Politburo, pp. 246–52.

33. See, for example, the effects of a long Stalin holiday, from 30 June to 31 October 1935, in R. W. Davies, O. V. Khlevniuk, E. A. Rees, P. K. Liudmila and A. R. Larisa (eds) The Stalin – Kaganovich Correspondence 1931–1936 (New Haven, Conn., 2003), pp. 209–35.

34. T. J. Colton Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), p. 324–5, for Stalin’s close attention to the rebuilding of Moscow.

35. Khlevniuk, Politburo, pp. 290–91; see too M. Djilas Conversations with Stalin (New York, 1962), pp. 76–7: ‘It was at these dinners that the destiny of the vast Russian land, of the newly acquired territories, and, to a considerable degree, of the human race was decided.’ Djilas concluded, ‘At these dinners the Soviet leaders were at their closest, most intimate with each other.’

36. N. Rosenfeldt ‘“The Consistory of the Communist Church”: The Origins and Development of Stalin’s Secret Chancellery’, Russian History, 9 (1982), pp. 308–15, 318; N. Rosenfeldt, The Importance of the Secret Apparatus of the Soviet Communist Party during the Stalin Era’, in Rosenfeldt, Jensen and Kulavig, Mechanisms of Power, pp. 40–59; Pavlova, ‘Strengths and Weaknesses’, pp. 29–36. On Stalin’s regular access to secret intelligence on states abroad see V. V. Poznyakov ‘The Soviet Intelligence Services and the Government: Information and Military-Political Decisions from the early 1920s to the early 1950s’, in Rosenfeldt, Jensen and Kulavig, Mechanisms of Power, p. 107.

37. Rosenfeldt, ‘The Consistory of the Communist Church’, pp. 315–17, 321.

38. S. S. Montefi ore Stalin: the Court of the Red Tsar (London, 2003), pp. 59–60.

39. A. Knight Beria: Stalin’s First Lieutenant (London, 1993), pp. 172–3; Montefi ore, Court of the Red Tsar, p. 559.

40. Rosenfeldt, ‘The Consistory of the Communist Church’, pp. 320–23.

41. V. Serge The Case of Comrade Tulayev (London, 1968), pp. 257–8. See too V. Serge Memoirs of a Revolutionary 1901–1941 (Oxford, 1967), pp. 284 ff.

42. Kotze and Krausnick, ‘Es spricht der Führer’, p. 117.

43. J. Öhquist Das Reich des Führers (Bonn, 1943), p. 157.

44. H. Brausse Die Führungsordnung des deutschen Volkes: Grundlegung einer Führungslehre (Hamburg, 1940), pp. 54–60; Neesse, Die NSDAP, pp. 145–7: The Führer is the living embodiment of the majority of the people.’

45. Hubert, Uniformierter Reichstag, pp. 132–7.

46. Moll, Führer Erlasse, pp. 48–9; E. H. Schwaab Hitler’s Mind: a Plunge into Madness (New York, 1992), p. 43 cites Hans Frank: ‘In the formulation of the law, the historical will of the Führer is implemented, and the fulfi lment of this historical will of the Führer is not contingent on any prerequisites of the laws of the state.’

47. IWM, FO 645 Box 161, testimony of Baldur von Schirach, 15 September 1945, p. 5.

48. Kotze and Krausnick, ‘Er spricht der Führer’, p. 160.

49. D. Orlow The History of the Nazi Tarty. Vol. 2: 1933–1945 (Newton Abbot, 1973), pp. 333–6.

50. Orlow, History of the Nazi Party, pp. 422–3, 458–9, 466.

51. Hubert, Uniformierter Reichstag, pp. 57, 220–26.

52. A. Resis (ed.) Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics (Chicago, 1993), pp. 38–9.

53. See the discussion of ‘weak dictator’ in Moll, Führer Erlasse, pp. 9–29; see too D. Rebentisch Führerstaat und Verwaltung im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Stuttgart, 1989).

54. H. Mommsen ‘Hitlers Stellung im nationalsozialistischen Herrschaftssystem’, in G. Hirschfeld and L. Kettenacker (eds) Der Führerstaaf: Mythos und Realität (Stuttgart, 1981), pp. 43–70.

55. See, for example, J. P. Duffy Hitler Slept Late And Other Blunders That Cost Him the War (New York, 1991), esp. ch 11 ‘profi le of a bungler’. On Hitler’s work pattern in the 1930s see K. Krause Zehn Jahre Kammerdiener bei Hitler (Hamburg, 1950), pp. 13–22, who describes his daily routine in the 1930s and early in the war.

56. See Pavlova, ‘Strengths and Weaknesses’, pp. 23–37; S. Pons ‘Stalinism and Party Organisation (1933–48)’, inj. Channon (ed.) Politics, Society and Stalinism in the USSR (London, 1998), pp. 93–4.

57. G. A. Bordiougov ‘The Transformation of the Policy of Extraordinary Measures into a Permanent System of Government’, in Rosenfeldt, Jensen and Kulavig, Mechanisms of Power, pp. 122–40.

58. See, for example, I. Kershaw ‘Working Towards the Führer: refl ections on the nature of the Nazi dictatorship’, in I. Kershaw and M. Lewin (eds) Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 88–107.

59. See, for example, S. Fitzpatrick ‘Blat in Stalin’s Time’, in S. Lovell, A. Ledeneva and A. Rogachevskii (eds) Bribery and Blat in

Russia: Negotiating Reciprocity from the Middle Ages to the 1990s (London, 2000), pp. 169–76; E. Belova ‘Economic Crime and Punishment’, in P. R. Gregory Behind the Façade of Stalin’s Command Economy (Stanford, 2001), pp. 133–42.

60. See, for example, Belova, ‘Economic Crime’, pp. 134–5; D. R. Shearer Industry, State, and Society in Stalin’s Russia, 1926–34 (Ithaca, NY, 1996), pp. 196–203, 208–10.

61. Resis, Molotov Remembers, p. 181.

62. Resis, Molotov Remembers, pp. 181–3.

63. Montefi ore, Court of the Red Tsar.

64. Ironically one of the few people he did address with the familiar ‘Du’ was Ernst Röhm, murdered on his orders in 1934.

65. R. J. Overy Interrogations: the Nazi Elite in Allied Hands (London, 2001), pp. 132–40.

66. Resis, Molotov Remembers, p. 183.

67. B. Bromage Molotov: the Story of an Era (London, 1956); Montefi ore, Court of the Red Tsar, pp. 34–5.

68. S. Beria Beria, My Father: Inside Stalin’s Kremlin (London, 2001), p. 165; Volkogonov, Triumph and Tragedy, pp. 249–52.

69. Davies et al., The Stalin – Kaganovich Correspondence, pp. 21–36.

70. Resis, Molotov Remembers, p. 232.

71. Beria, Beria, My Father, p. 160; on Zhdanov’s death see J. Brent and V. Naumov Stalin’s Last Crime: the Plot against the Jewish Doctors, 1948–1953 (London, 2002).

72. Beria, Beria, My Father, pp. 141–2.

73. T. H. Rigby ‘Was Stalin a Loyal Patron?’ Soviet Studies, 38 (1986), pp. 313–14, 17–19.

74. See A. Kube Pour le merite und Hakenkreuz: Hermann Göring im Dritten Reich (Munich, 1986).

75. R. Reuth Goebbels (London, 1993).

76. T. Junge Until the Final Hour: Hitler’s Last Secretary (London, 2003), p. 94. On Himmler, P. Padfi eld Himmler: Reichsführer SS (London, 1990).

77. F. Genoud (ed.), The Testament of Adolf Hitler: the Hitler – Bormann Documents (London, 1961), p. 104.

78. IWM, Speer Collection, Box S369, FIAT Report 19, ‘Adolf Hitler’, pp. 3–4.

79. P. Huttenberger ‘Nationalsozialistische Polykratie’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 2 (1976), pp. 419–42; K. Hildebrand ‘Monokratie oder Polykratie? Hitlers Herrschaft und das Dritte Reich’, in Hirschfeld and Kettenacker, Der ‘‘Führer-straaf, pp. 73–96.

80. Beria, Beria, My Father, p. 157; Resis, Molotov Remembers, p. 181.

81. IWM, Speer Collection, Box 5369, FIAT Report, 19, p. 3.

82. Dollmann in PRO, WO 218/4475, interrogation of Eugen Dollmann (August 1945), p. 1; G. W. Price I Know These Dictators (London, 1937), pp. 9–10: ‘His bearing remains tranquil until his attention is aroused by some political remark. Then his eyes light up, his relaxed frame stiffens, and in a hoarse, sombre voice, he pours forth a voluble reply.’

83. IWM, Speer Collection, Box S369, FIAT Report 19, Albert Speer ‘Adolf Hitler’ 19 October, 1945, p. 9.

84. Junge, Until the Final Hour, p. 85.

85. Reichsgesetzblatt, 1936, Part I, p. 887; BA-B, R26 IV/4, ‘Sitzung des kleinen Ministerrats’, 21 October 1936, p. 2: ‘the full power of the Minister President [Göring] is unlimited’. Heinrich Lammers, head of the Reich Chancellery, described the nature of this power after the war: ‘Göring… under whose jurisdiction all Government and Party units were subordinate’. See IWM, FO645 Box 159, ‘Notes on Legislation and Measures for the Defence of the Reich’, 17 October, 1945.

86. IWM, Speer Collection, Box S369, FIAT Report 19, Part III, ‘Exploitation of Albert Speer’, pp. 9–10.

87. Volkogonov, Triumph and Tragedy, pp. 240–41.

88. Resis, Molotov Remembers, pp, 179–80.

89. Krause, Zehn Jahre, p. 22.

90. Resis, Molotov Remembers, p. 180.

91. Resis, Molotov Remembers, p. 29.

92. R. J. Overy Goering the ‘Iron Man’ (London, 1984), pp. 59–75.

93. G. P. Megargee Inside Hitler’s High Command (Lawrence, Kans., 2000), pp. 44–8; IWM, FO 645, Box 158, memorandum by Wilhelm Keitei ‘The position and powers of the Chief of OKW, 9 October 1945, pp. 1–4; W. Deist ‘Die Wehrmacht des Dritten Reiches’, in W. Deist et al. Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg: Band I (Stuttgart, 1979), pp. 501–20.

94. ‘Weisung Adolf Hitlers an die Wehrmacht von 3 April 1939’, H. Michaelis and E. Schraepler (eds) Ursachen und Folgen vom deutschen Zusammenbruch 1918 bis 1945 (Berlin, 1967), vol. xiii, p. 212.

95. See R. J. Overy ‘Strategic Intelligence and the Outbreak of the Second World War’, War in History, 5 (1998), pp. 456–64.

96. IWM, Case XI, document book ib, p. 133, Fritzsche affi davit, 29 June 1948; E. Fröhlich (ed.) Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels: Teil I, Aufzeichnungen 1923–1941, vol. vii (Munich, 1998), p. 87.

97. H. von Kotze (ed.) Heeresadjutant bei Hitler 1938–1945: Aufzeichnungen des Majors Engel (Stuttgart, 1974), p. 60; H. Groscurth Tagebuch eines Abwehroffi ziers (Stuttgart, 1970), p. 128, entries for 28, 30 September 1938.

98. J. Toland Adolf Hitler (London, 1976), p. 571.

99. B. Whaley Codeword Barbarossa (Cambridge, Mass., 1973), p. 211.

100. On Stalin’s letter see A. M. Nekrich Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations 1922–1941 (New York, 1997), p. 22; C. Roberts ‘Planning for War: the Red Army and the Catastrophe of 1941’, Europe – Asia Studies, 47 (1995), p. 1319.

101. R. McNeal Stalin: Man and Ruler (London, 1988), p. 238.

102. Resis, Molotov Remembers, p. 22; Knight, Beria, p. 109.

103. On Stalin, Resis, Molotov Remembers, p. 25; O. Dietrich The Hitler I Knew (London, 1955), p. 47. Also L. E. Hill (ed.) Die Weizsäcker-Papiere 1933–50 (Frankfurt am Main, 1974), p. 164, entry for 7 September 1939.

104. N. von Below At Hitler’s Side: The Memoirs of Hitler’s Luftwaffe Adjutant 1937–1945 (London, 2003), pp. 32–3.

105. E. Radzinsky Stalin (London, 1996), pp. 451–2.

106. von Below, At Hitler’s Side, p. 33.

107. On the offi ce see Brausse, Führungsordnung, p. 52; on the succession N. Zitelmann Hitler: the Politics of Seduction (London, 1999), p. 383.

108. Zitelmann, Hitler, pp. 383–7; on the special nature of Hitler’s leadership Brausse, Führungsordnung, pp. 54–5, 60.

109. W. Taubman Khrushchev: the Man and his Era (New York, 2003), pp. 3–17.

 

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1. Pravda, 19 December 1939, ‘About Stalin’.

2. Uncensored Germany: Letters and News Sent Secretly from Germany to the German Freedom Party (London, 1940), pp. 23–4.

3. I. Zbarsky and S. Hutchinson Lenin’s Embalmers (London, 1998), pp. 164–5; S. Fenander ‘Author and Autocrat: Tertz’s Stalin and the Ruse of Charisma’, Russian Review, 58 (1999), p. 295.

4. P. Grigorenko Memoirs (London, 1983), p. 219; P. Deriabin with J. C. Evans Inside Stalin’s Kremlin (Washington, DC, 1998), pp. x – xi.

5. A. Speer Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs (London, 1970), pp. 488–9.

6. Imperial War Museum, London, Aus deutsche Urkunden. Letters from British censor’s offi ce, n.d. but c. 1945.

7. I. Kershaw The ‘Hitler Myth’: Image and Reality in the Third Reich (Oxford, 1987), pp. 264–6.

8. W. Lewis The Hitler Cult (London, 1939); E. Alexander Der Mythos Hitler (Zurich, 1937).

9. See S. Labin Stalin’s Russia (London, 1949), pp. 6Iff for contemporary views of the Stalin cult.

10. A. Hitler Mein Kampf (ed. D. C. Watt, London, 1969), pp. 403, 408–9; R. Zitelmann Hitler: the Politics of Seduction (London, 1999), p. 391.

11. H. Trevor-Roper (ed.) Hitler’s Table Talk, 1941–1944 (London, 1973), pp. 385–6, 508, conversation of 31 March 1942 and 31 May 1942.

12. G. Macdonogh The Last Kaiser: William The Impetuous (London, 2000), p. 453.

13. J. Stalin Foundations of Leninism (New York, 1939), p. 59.

14. Stalin, Foundations, pp. 110, 118.

15. J. Stalin Works (13 vols, Moscow, 1952–55), vol. xiii, pp. 107–9, ‘Talk with the German author Emil Ludwig’, 13 December 1931.

16. D. Brandenberger and A. Dubrovsky ‘“The People need a Tsar”: the Emergence of National Bolshevism as Stalinist Ideology 1931–1941’, Europe – Asia Studies, 50 (1998), pp. 873–92; see too D. Brandenberger National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of Modern Russian National Identity 1931–1956 (Cambridge, Mass., 2002), pp. 56–8, 86–90, 100–03.

17. A. Resis (ed.) Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics. Conversations with Felix Chuev (Chicago, 1993), pp. 181, 213.

18. E. van Ree The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin (London, 2002), p. 163.

19. Voprosy Istorii, 1953, no. 11.

20. B. Rosenthal New Myth, New World: from Nietzsche to Stalin (Pittsburgh, 2002), p. 377.

21. R. Bendix Max Weber: an Intellectual Portrait (London, 1966), pp. 299–307; J. Winckelmann (ed.) Max Weber: gesammelte politische Schrifte (Tübingen, 1958), pp. 505fr, ‘Politik als Beruf, October 1919.

22. D. Beetham Max Weber and the Theory of Modern Politics (London, 1974), p. 227.

23. W. G. Runciman (ed.) Max Weber: Selections in Translation (London, 1974), p. 226.

24. Rosenthal, New Myth, New World, p. 377.

25. A. Storr (ed.) The Essential Jung: Selected Writings (London, 1983), pp. 191, 202–3.

26. A. Kolnai The War Against the West (London, 1938), p. 159.

27. G. Scheele The Weimar Republic: Overture to the Third Reich (London, 1946), pp. 229–30.

28. B. G. Rosenthal ‘Nietzsche, Nationality, Nationalism’, in A. Freifeld, P. Bergmann and B. G. Rosenthal (eds) East Europe reads Nietzsche (New York, 1998), pp. 190–97; M. L. Loe ‘Gorky and Nietzsche: the Quest for a Russian Superman’, in B. G. Rosenthal (ed.) Nietzsche in Russia (Princeton, NJ, 1986), pp. 251–2.

29. Y. Yevtushenko (ed.) Twentieth-Century Russian Poetry (London, 1993), p. 81; on the use of religious imagery and metaphor see N. Tumarkin Lenin Lives! The Lenin Cult in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), pp. 18–23; M. D. Steinberg Proletarian Imagination: Self, Modernity, and the Sacred in Russia, 1910–1925 (Ithaca, NY, 2002), pp. 254–5, 273–8.

30. Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! p. 21; on Lunacharsky see A. L. Tait ‘Lunacharsky: a “Nietzschean Marxist”?’, in Rosenthal, Nietzsche in Russia, pp. 275–92.

31. On the Tsar cult and its decline see O. Figes and B. Kolonitskii Interpreting the Russian Revolution: the Language and Symbols of 1917 (New Haven, Conn., 1999), chs 1–2; Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! pp. 6–12.

32. Pravda, 18 December 1939.

33. W. Laqueur Stalin: the Glasnost Revelations (London, 1990), p. 180.

34. Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! pp. 54–5.

35. I. Bonnell Iconography of Power: Soviet Political Posters under Lenin and Stalin (Berkeley, Calif., 1997), pp. 140–54; S. Davies Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia: Terror, Propaganda and Dissent, 1934–1941 (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 147–9.

36. Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! p. 80.

37. Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! p. 82.

38. B. Ennker ‘The Origins and Intentions of the Lenin Cult’, in I. D. Thatcher (ed.) Regime and Society in Twentieth-Century Russia (London, 1999), pp. 119–25; Zbarsky and Hutchinson, Lenin’s Embalmers, pp. 9–25 for details on the decision.

39. Ennker, ‘Lenin Cult’, pp. 123–4; Zbarsky and Hutchinson, Lenin’s Embalmers, pp. 25–31; Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! pp. 191–6, 205.

40. Bonnell, Iconography of Power, pp. 148, 150; Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! pp. 126–7; R. Löhmann Der Stalinmythos: Studien zur Sozialgeschichte des Personenkultes in der Sowjetunion (1929–1935) (Münster, 1990), pp. 47–56.

41. Storr, The Essential Jung, p. 210, The Development of Personality’, 1934.

42. Lewis, Hitler Cult, p. 47.

43. IWM, FO 645/161, interrogation of Christa Schroeder, 13 September 1945, p. 5.

44. See, for example, G. Ueding ‘Rede als Fürherproklamation’ in J. Kopperschmidt (ed.) Hitler der Redner (Munich, 2003), pp. 441–53.

45. M. Dodd My Years in Germany (London, 1939), p. 180.

46. M. Loiperdinger ‘“Sieg des Glaubens” – Ein gelungenes Experiment nationalsozialistischer Filmpropaganda’, in U. Hermann and U. Nassen (eds) Formative Ästhetik in Nationalsozialismus (Weinheim, 1994), pp. 40–45.

47. V. Cowles Looking for Trouble (London, 1941), pp. 153–4.

48. Lewis, Hitler Cult, p. 39.

49. J. H. Billington The Face of Russia (New York, 1998), p. 210.

50. See, for example J. Stalin Problems of Leninism (Moscow, 1947), pp. 250, 285, 439.

51. Resis, Molotov Remembers, pp. 175–6.

52. Hitler’s model was the unmarried mayor of pre-war Vienna, Karl Lueger. See B. Hamann Hitler’s Vienna: a Dictator’s

Apprenticeship (Oxford, 1999), pp. 375–8; See too Public Record Offi ce, Kew, London FO 1031/102 ‘Women around Hitler’, Memorandum by Karl Brandt, 6 February 1946: ‘Hitler wished to keep the mystic legend alive in the hearts of the German people that so long as he remained a bachelor, there was always the chance that any out of the millions of German women might possibly attain the high distinction of being at Hitler’s side.’

53. Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 114.

54. E. Barker Refl ections on Government (Oxford, 1942), p. 375.

55. Kolnai, War against the West, p. 153.

56. Kolnai, War against the West, pp. 156, 158.

57. Stalin, Foundations, pp. 109–10.

58. Bonnell, Iconography of Power, pp. 157–9.

59. Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! pp, 252–3; Rosenthal, New Myth, New World, pp. 375, 379; S. Davis The Leader Cult: Propaganda and its Reception in Stalin’s Russia’, in J. Channon (ed.) Politics, Society and Stalinism in the USSR (London, 1998), pp. 117–18.

60. Labin, Stalin’s Russia, p. 71; see too van Ree, Political Thought of Joseph Stalin, p. 162.

61. Bonnell, Iconography of Power, pp. 162–4; Labin, Stalin’s Russia, p. 67.

62. van Ree, Political Thought of Joseph Stalin, p. 165.

63. C. Schmölders Hitlers Gesicht: Eine physiognomische Biographie (Munich, 2000), p. 145.

64. Schmölders, Hitlers Gesicht, pp. 39–40; on the presentation of the image see too U. Kühn ‘Rede als Selbstinszenierung – Hitler auf der “Bühne”’, in Kopperschmidt, Hitler der Redner, pp. 368–79; K. Protte ‘Hitler als Redner in Fotografi e und Film’, in Kopperschmidt, Hitler der Redner, pp. 243–54.

65. Schmölders, Hitlers Gesicht, p. 104.

66. Schmölders, Hitlers Gesicht, pp. 148–9; see too C. Koonz The Nazi Conscience (Cambridge, Mass., 2003), pp. 77–9.

67. Bonnell, Iconography of Power, p. 137.

68. Bonnell, Iconography of Power, p. 157.

69. Rosenthal, New Myth, New World, pp. 380, 386.

70. Löhmann, Der Stalinmythos, p. 27.

71. G. F. Alexandrov et al. Joseph Stalin: a Short Biography (Mocow, 1949); see too van Ree, Political Thought of Joseph Stalin, pp. 162–5.

72. J. J. Barnes and P. P. Barnes Hitler’s Mein Kampf: Britain and America: a Publishing History 1930–39 (Cambridge, 1980), pp. 1–2; see too W. Maser Mein Kampf: Der Fahrplan eines Welteroberers: Geschichte, Auszüge, Kommentare (Esslingen,

1974) and, more recently, B. Zehnpfennig Hitler’s Mein Kampf: Eine Interpretation (Munich, 2000).

73. Laqueur, Glasnost Revelations, p. 182.

74. History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union: short course (Moscow, 1942), p. 206.

75. Fenander, ‘Author and Autocrat’, p. 297.

76. Fenander, ‘Author and Autocrat’, p. 297.

77. Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia, p. 149.

78. Labin, Stalin’s Russia, p. 68.

79. H. G. Baynes Germany Possessed (London, 1941), pp. 107–8.

80. Schmölders, Hitlers Gesicht, p. 145.

81. Bonnell, Iconography of Power, pp. 148, 166.

82. Labin, Stalin’s Russia, pp. 64–5.

83. Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia, p. 161.

84. F. J. Miller Folklore for Stalin: Russian Folklore and Pseudofolklore of the Stalin Era (New York, 1990), ch. 2.

85. Miller, Folklore for Stalin, p. 69; F. J. Miller The Image of Stalin in Soviet Russian Folklore’, Russian Review, 39 (1980), pp. 57–8.

86. Miller, Folklore for Stalin, p. 143.

87. Baynes, Germany Possessed, p. 107.

88. R. Marsh Images of Dictatorship: Stalin in Literature (London, 1989), p. 31.

89. Marsh, Images of Dictatorship, p. 39.

90. Marsh, Images of Dictatorship, p. 27.

91. Labin, Stalin’s Russia, p. 65.

92. Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia, p. 165; Laqueur, Glasnost Revelations, p. 183.

93. Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia, p. 174.

94. G. Neesse Die NSDAP: versuch einer Rechtsdentung (Stuttgart, 1935), pp. 196–7; see too H. Brausse Die Führungsordnung des deutschen Volkes: Grundlegung einer Führungslehre (Hamburg, 1940) pp. 14–25, 52–5.

95. Storr, Essential Jung, p. 201.

96. M. Perrie ‘Nationalism and History: the Cult of Ivan the Terrible in Stalin’s Russia’, in G. Hosking and R. Service (eds) Russian Nationalism: Past and Present (London, 1998), p. 120.

97. Joseph Stalin: a Short Biography, pp. 201–3.

98. Kolnai, War against the West, p. 20.

99. Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia, p. 172.

100. Kershaw, The ‘Hitler Myth’, p. 60.

101. In general on the cult see Kershaw, The ‘Hitler Myth’; G. Gill ‘The Soviet Leader Cult: Refl ections on the Structure of Leadership in the Soviet Union’, British Journal of Political Science, 10 (1980), pp. 167–86; R. H. Tucker The Rise of Stalin’s Personality Cult’, American Historical Review, 84 (1979), pp. 347–66; S. Davies, ‘The Leader Cult: Propaganda and its Perception in Stalinist Russia’, in J. Channon (ed.) Politics, Society and Stalinism in the USSR (London, 1988), pp. 115–38.

102. Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia, p. 170.

103. Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia, p. 174.

104. N. Mandelstam Hope against Hope (London, 1970), p. 203; see too Marsh, Images of Dictatorship, pp. 36–8.

105. Marsh, Images of Dictatorship, pp. 45–50.

106. J. Brooks Thank you, Comrade Stalin: Soviet Public Culture from Revolution to Cold War (Princeton, 2000), p. 60.

107. G. Prokhorov Art under Socialist Realism: Soviet Painting 1930–1950 (Roseville East, Austr., 1995), p. 101.

108. IWM, Speer Collection, Box S369, FIAT Report 19, exploitation of Albert Speer, 19 October 1945, pp. 3–4

109. C. Haste Nazi Women (London, 2001), p. 78.

110. F. Reck-Malleczewen Diary of a Man in Despair (London, 1951), p. 19.

111. Resis, Molotov Remembers, pp. 189–90; on Hitler’s retirement, IWM, Speer Collection, Box S369, FIAT Report 19, p. 15.

112. Löhmann, Der Stalinmythos, p. 6.

113. Marsh, Images of Dictatorship, p. 28.

114. Fenander, ‘Author and Autocrat’, p. 295.

 

Глава 4

1. J. Öhquist Das Reich des Führers (Bonn, 1943), p. 161.

2. J. Stalin Works (13 vols, Moscow, 1953–55), vol. viii, p. 43, ‘Concerning Questions of Leninism’, January 1926.

3. ‘Der Schlussrede des Führers auf dem Parteikongress’ 10 September 1934, in G. Neesse Die Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (Stuttgart, 1935), pp. 194–6.

4. J. Stalin Problems of Leninism (Moscow, 1947), pp. 80–81, ‘Foundation of Leninism’, April 1924.

5. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, pp. 81–2.; Neese, Nationalsozialistische Partei, pp. 196–7; D. Hein ‘Partei und Bewegung. Zwei Typen moderner politischer Willensbildung’, Historische Zeitschrift, 263 (1996), pp. 85–7, 90–91.

6. Neesse, Nationalsozialistische Partei, p. 202; Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 80.

7. Neesse, Nationalsozialistische Partei, p. 202; Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 139, ‘On the Problems of Leninism’, 26 January 1926; H. Mehringer Die NSDAP als politische Aus lese organisation (Munich, 1938), p. 14.

8. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 84; Neesse, Nationalsozialistische Partei, p. 202; L. Münz Führer durch die Behörden und Organisationen (Berlin, 1939), p. 2a.

9. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 153; Works, vol. viii, p. 43.

10. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 82; Stalin, Works, vol. viii, pp. 44–5.

11. Neesse, Nationalsozialistische Partei, p. 22; Mehringer, Die NSDAP, p. 14; W. Schieder ‘Die NSDAP vor 1933. Profi l einer faschistischen Partei’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 19 (1993), pp. 145–7; J. Caplan ‘National Socialism and the Theory of the State’, in T. Childers and J. Caplan (eds) Reevaluating the Third Reich (New York, 1993), pp. 105–7.

12. T. H. Rigby Communist Party Membership in the USSR 1917–1967 (Princeton, NJ, 1968), p. 52; M. Kater The Nazi Party: A

Social Profi le of Members and Leaders, 1919–1945 (Oxford, 1983), p. 263; B. Meissner The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (New York, 1956), pp. 4–5.

13. A. Avtorkhanov The Communist Party Apparatus (Chicago, 1961), pp. 76, 79–80; M. Fainsod How Russia is Ruled (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), pp. 248–50, 262; G. Gill The Rules of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (London, 1988), pp. 40–42.

14. R. Taylor Film Propaganda in Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany (London, 1998), p. 63.

15. Meissner, Communist Party, p. 40; Gill, Rules of the Communist Party, pp. 163–4.

16. C.-W. Reibel Das Fundament der Diktatur: Die NSDAP-Ortsgruppen 1932–1945 (Paderborn, 2002), pp. 232–3.

17. Details on membership from Rigby, Communist Party Membership, pp. 190–91, 197–200, 256–63; see too Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, pp. 248–70.

18. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, pp. 275–80.

19. D. Orlow The History of the Nazi Party: Volume II 1933–1945 (Newton Abbot, 1973), pp. 55–6, 202.

20. Kater, The Nazi Party, p. 263; Orlow, Nazi Party: II, pp. 203–5, 253, 323.

21. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, p. 73; D. Schmiechen-Ackermann ‘Der “Blockwart”’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte,

48 (2000), pp. 584–5.

22. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, pp. 204–13; Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, 260–61, 262; see too J. A. Getty The Origin of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered 1933–1938 (Cambridge, 1985).

23. Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, pp. 177, 196.

24. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, pp. 263–75.

25. Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart”’, pp. 596–7.

26. Calculated from Kater, Nazi Party, p. 263.

27. Orlow, Nazi Party: II, pp. 124–5.

28. Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart’”, p. 587.

29. D. Mühlberger The Pattern of the SA’s Social Appeal’, in C. Fisher (ed.) The Rise of National Socialism and the Working Classes in Weimar Germany (Oxford, 1996), pp. 99–116.

30. A. Graziosi A New, Peculiar State: Explorations in Soviet History 1917–1937 (Westport, Conn., 2000), pp. 196–7.

31. Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, p. 251; R. Hill and P. Frank The Soviet Communist Party (London, 1983), pp. 33–6.

32. K. Boterbloem Life and Death under Stalin: Kalinin Province, 1945–1953 (Montreal, 1999), p. 102; Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, p. 264.

33. C.-C. Szejnmann Vom Traum zum Alptraum: Sachsen in der Weimarer Republik (Dresden, 2000), pp. 114–16.

34. Kater, The Nazi Party, pp. 264–7; D. Miihlberger (ed.) The Social Basis of European Fascist Movements (London, 1987), pp.

76–94: C. Roth Parteikreis und Kreisleiter der NSDAP unter besonderer Berücksichtigung Bayerns (Munich, 1997), p. 182;

H.-U. Thamer Verführung und Gewalt: Deutschland 1933–1945 (Berlin, 1986), p. 175.

35. J. Falter and M. H. Kater ‘Wähler und Mitglieder der NSDAP’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 19 (1993), p. 165.

36. Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, p. 183; Meissner, Communist Party, p. 10.

37. Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, pp. 254, 271; Rigby, Communist Party Membership, p. 361.

38. Rigby, Communist Party Membership, p. 354; Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, pp. 257, 274.

39. Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, p. 180; Thamer, Verführung und Gewalt, p. 178; Kater, The Nazi Party, p. 257.

40. Gill, Rules of the Communist Party, pp. 162–3, Rules of the All-Union Communist Party, 1934.

41. Avtorkhanov, Communist Party Apparatus, pp. 119, 122; Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, pp. 229–30.

42. Avtorkhanov, Communist Party Apparatus, pp. 153–4; Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, p. 196; M. Fainsod Smolensk under Soviet Rule (Boston, Mass., 1989), pp. 63, 113; L. Schapiro The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (London, 1960), pp. 444–5.

43. Reibel, Fundament der Diktatur, pp. 32–5.

44. Reibel, Fundament der Diktatur, pp. 121, 123; Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart’”, p. 586.

45. Münz, Führer durch die Behörden und Organisationen, pp. 6–8.

46. Reibel, Fundament der Diktatur, pp. 50–51, 56–63.

47. Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, pp. 284–91; Avtorkhanov, Communist Party Apparatus, pp. 256–7; see too I. Tirado, ‘The Komsomol and the Bright Socialist Future’, in C. Kuhr-Korolev, S. Plaggenborg and M. Wellmann (eds) Sowjetjugend 1917–

1941; Generation zwischen Revolution und Resignation (Essen, 2001), pp. 217–32.

48. G. Kinz Der Bund Deutscher Mädel: Ein Beitrag zur ausserschulisch en Mädchenerziehung im Nationalsozialismus (Frankfurt am Main, 1990), pp. 3–12, 25; C. Schubert-Weller Hitler-Jugend: Vom ‘Jungsturm Adolf Hitler’ zur Staatsjugend des Dritten Reiches (Weinheim, 1993), pp. 13–15, 33–4.

49. H. Vorländer Die NSV: Darstellung und Dokumentation einer nationalisozialistischen Organisation (Boppard am Rhein, 1988), pp. 1–14, 96; J. Stcphcnson The Nazi Organisation of Women (London, 1981), pp. 50–55, 140.

50. Avtorkhanov, Communist Party Apparatus, p. 13.

51. E. van Ree ‘Stalin’s Organic Theory of the Party’, Russian Review, 52 (1993), p. 54.

52. S. Allan Comrades and Citizens: Soviet People (London, 1938), pp. 88–9, 94–5.

53. Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, pp. 260–61; Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule, pp. 220–22.

54. Allan, Comrades and Citizens, pp. 257–9.

55. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule, p. 230; S. Pons ‘Stalinism and Party Organisation (1933–1948)’, inj. Channon (ed.) Politics, Society and Stalinism in the USSR (London, 1998), pp. 96–7.

56. D. M. McKale The Nazi Party Courts: Hitler’s management of confl ict in his Movement 1921–1945 (Lawrence, Kans., 1974), pp. 77–8, 123.

57. McKale, Nazi Party Courts, p. 55.

58. McKale, Nazi Party Courts, p. 22–3.

59. McKale, Nazi Party Courts, pp. 144–5, 164, 178–80; M. Moll, ‘Steuerungsinstrument im “Ämterchaos”? Die Tagungen der Reichs-und Gauleiter der NSDAP’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 49 (2001), pp. 236–8.

60. Allan, Comrades and Citizens, p. 88.

61. E. P. Mickiewicz, Soviet Political Schools: the Communist Party Adult Instruction System (New Haven, Conn., 1967), pp. 3–9,

89–101; M. David-Fox Revolution of the Mind: Higher Learning among the Bolsheviks, 1918–1929 (Ithaca, NY, 1997), pp. 84–7; T. Kirstein, ‘Das sowjetische Parteischulsystem’, in B. Meissner, G. Brunner and R. Löwenthal (eds) Einparteisystem und bürokratische Herrschaft in der Sowjetunion (Cologne, 1978), pp. 204–16.

62. Orlow, Nazi Party: II, pp. 188–92; Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart”’, p. 589.

63. Schubert-Weller, Hitler-Jugend, pp. 182–3; on selection and admission see the testimony of P. Peterson in J. Steinhoff, P. Pechel and D. Showalter (eds) Voices of the Third Reich: an Oral History (Washington, DC, 1989), pp. 8–9.

64. Avtorkhanov, Communist Party Apparatus, pp. 79–80; Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart”’, p. 586; M. Voslensky Nomenklatura: Anatomy of the Soviet Ruling Class (London, 1984), pp. 48–9.

65. Allan, Comrades and Citizens, p. 242.

66. Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart”’, p. 589.

67. Gill, Rules of the Communist Party, pp. 165–6.

68. Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart”’, pp. 581–3; Reibel, Fundament der Diktatur, pp. 104–5; Stephenson, Nazi Organisation of Women, p. 155; L. Pine ‘Creating Conformity: the Training of Girls in the Bund Deutscher Mädel’, European History Quarterly, 33 (2003), pp. 367–85.

69. Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart”’, pp. 590–95; J. Noakes (ed.) Nazism 1919–1945: a Documentary Reader: Volume 4 (Exeter, 1998), pp. 96–100, ‘Service Instructions for Block Leaders. 1 June 1944’.

70. Reibel, Fundament der Diktatur, pp. 104–5, 191.

71. D. Rebentisch ‘Die “politische Beurteilung” als Herrschaftsinstrument der NSDAP’, in D. Peukert and J. Reulecke (eds) Die Reihen fast geschlossen: Beiträge zur Geschichte des Alltags unterm Nationalsozialismus (Wuppertal, 1981), pp. 107–28; Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, pp. 269–70.

72. Rebentisch, ‘Die “politische Beurteilung” ‘, p. 114.

73. Rebentisch, ‘Die “politische Beurteilung”’, pp. 108, 117–18.

74. Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, pp. 282–3.

75. S. Labin, Stalin’s Russia (London, 1949), p. 149; Tirado, The Komsomol’, pp. 220–22.

76. Labin, Stalin’s Russia, p. 153.

77. Boterbloem, Life and Death under Stalin, p. 125.

78. A. Smith I Was a Soviet Worker (London, 1937), p. 242.

79. Noakes, Nazism: Volume 4, pp. 97–8.

80. Vorländer, Die NSV: Dokumente, pp. 53–4.

81. G. Miller-Kipp (ed.) ‘Auch Du gehörst dem Führer’: Die Geschichte des Bundes Deutscher Mädel in Quellen und Dokumenten (Munich, 2001), p. 62.

82. See for example C. Arbogast Herrschaftsinstanzen der württembergischen NSDAP: Funktion, Sozialprofi l und Lebenswege einer regionalen NS-Elite 1920–1960 (Munich, 1998), pp. 116–22.

83. On the development of German bureaucracy J. Caplan ‘Profession as Vocation: The German Civil Service’, in G. Cocks and K. Jarausch (eds) German Professions, 1800–1950 (Oxford, 1990), pp. 163–82.

84. T. H. Rigby ‘Staffi ng USSR Incorporated: The Origins of the Nomenklatura System’, Soviet Studies, 40 (1988), pp. 526–30.

85. Labin, Stalin’s Russia, p. 50; Rigby, ‘Staffi ng USSR Incorporated’, pp. 531–3.

86. Labin, Stalin’s Russia, p. 50.

87. R. Koshar Social Life, Local Politics, and Nazism: Marburg 1880–1935 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1986), pp. 247–50.

88. J. H. Grill The Nazi Movement in Baden 1920–1945 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1983), pp. 247–8, 257, 265.

89. H. Fenske Bürokratie in Deutschland von späten Kaiserreich bis zur Gegenwart (Berlin, 1985), pp. 40–43.

90. Fenske, Bürokratie in Deutschland, pp. 44, 48; M. Broszat The Hitler State: the foundation and development of the internal structure of the Third Reich (London, 1981), pp. 242–3.

91. Orlow, Nazi Party: II, pp. 226–7; H. Mommsen Beamtentum in Dritten Reich: mit ausgewählten Quellen zur nationalsozialistischen Beamtenpolitik (Stuttgart, 1966), pp. 103–4.

92. Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, pp. 234–5.

93. Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, p. 195.

94. Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, pp. 213, 215.

95. Orlow, Nazi Party: II, pp. 228–9.

96. Schmiechen-Ackermann, ‘Der “Blockwart”’, p. 586; Orlow, Nazi Party: II, pp. 72–3.

97. Avtorkhanov, Communist Party Apparatus, pp. 143, 199.

98. Münz, Führer durch die Behörden, pp. 6–9.

99. Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, pp. 122–3.

100. Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, pp. 139–44.

101. Broszat, Hitler State, pp. 112–17; on the Reichsstatthalter see H.-J. Sengotta Der Reichsstatthalter in Lippe 1933 bis 1939.

Reichsrechtliche Bestimmungen und politische Praxis (Detmold, 1976), pp. 41–59, 408–9.

102. Moll, ‘Steuerungsinstrument’, pp. 215–72; more generally on the Gauleiter see P. Hiittenberger Die Gauleiter (Stuttgart, 1969).

103. Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, p. 199.

104. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule, p. 98.

105. Mommsen, Beamtentum, p. 103.

106. Gill, Rules of the Communist Party, pp. 44–7.

107. Avtorkhanov, Communist Party Apparatus, pp. 103–4; Pons, ‘Stalinism and Party Organisation’, pp. 108–9.

108. B. Harasymiw Soviet Communist Party Offi cials: A study in organizational roles and change (New York, 1996), pp. 85–8.

109. B. Meissner ‘Die besonderen Wesenszüge der sowjetschen Bürokratie und die Wandlungsmöglichkeiten des Einparteisystems’ in Meissner, Brunner and Löwenthal, Einparteisystem, pp. 73–4; R. di Leo Occupazione e salari neWURSS 1950–1977 (Milan, 1980), pp. 38–9, 50.

110. Harasymiw, Communist Party Offi cials, p. 30.

111. Fenske, Bürokratie in Deutschland, pp. 45–7.

112. Fenske, Bürokratie in Deutschland, pp. 48–51.

113. See R. Koehl The Black Corps: the Structure and Power Struggles of the Nazi SS (Madison, Wise, 1983); the process of infi ltration and control is charted in A. Speer The Slave State: Heinrich Himmlers Masterplan for SS Supremacy (London, 1981).

114. Meissner, ‘Der besonderen Wesenzüge’, p. 77.

115. Fenske, Bürokratie in Deutschland, p. 45.

116. The party revived after Stalin’s death. See Y. Gorlizki ‘Party Revivalism and the Death of Stalin’, Slavic Review, 54 (1995), pp. 1–22.

117. See for example A. Unger The Totalitarian Party: Party and People in Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia (London, 1974).

118. Roth, Parteikreis und Kreisleiter, p. 143.

119. Harasymiw, Communist Party Offi cials, pp. 136–7.

120. Boterbloem, Life and Death under Stalin.

121. S. Davies ‘“Us Against Them”: Social Identity in Soviet Russia, 1934–41’, Russian Review, 56 (1997), pp. 70–89.

 

Глава 5

1. M. Fainsod How Russia is Ruled (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), p. 424.

2. N. Baynes (ed.) Hitler’s Speeches 1919–1939 (2 vols, Oxford, 1942), vol i., p. 504.

3. R. Tucker and S. Cohen (eds) The Great Purge Trial (New York, 1965), p. xv.

4. Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, p. 423.

5. N. Leites and E. Bernant Rituals of Liquidation: the Case of the Moscow Trials (Glencoe, Ill., 1954), pp. 318, 322–3; see too People’s Commissariat of Justice of the USSR Report of Court Proceedings in the case of the Anti-Soviet ‘Bloc of Rights and Trotskyites’ (Moscow, 1938), pp. 625–7.

6. J. Stalin Works (13 vols, Moscow, 1952–5), vol. xiii, pp. 110–11, ‘talk with the German author Emil Ludwig’, 13 December 1931.

7. T. Rees and A. Thorpe (eds) International Communism and the Communist International 1919–1943 (Manchester, 1998), p. 35.

8. Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, p. 159.

9. Leites and Bernant, Rituals of Liquidation, p. 12.

10. E. Alexander Der Mythos Hitler (Zurich, 1937), p. 395.

11. Baynes, Hitler’s Speeches, vol. i, p. 504, proclamation at the party congress, 1 September 1933.

12. Baynes, Hitler’s Speeches, vol. i, p. 299, Hitler speech to the Reichstag, 13 July 1934. Hitler reminded his audience that communism had brought ‘mass-terrorism’ to all parts of the world.

13. P. Weindling Health, Race and German Politics between National Unifi cation and Nazism 1870–1945 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 382–5.

14. F. S. Zuckermann The Tsarist Secret Police in Russian Society, 1880–1917 (London, 1996), pp. 19–27; J. Daly The Security Police and Politics in Late Imperial Russia’, in A. Geifman (ed.) Russia under the Last Tsar: Opposition and Subversion (Oxford, 1999), pp. 217–34.

15. M. Broszat The Hitler State: the foundation and development of the internal structure of the Third Reich (London, 1981), p. 332. On political police forces see F Wilhelm Die Polizei im NS-Staat (Paderborn, 1997), pp. 24–35.

16. G. Leggett The Cheka: Lenin’s Political Police (Oxford, 1981), pp. 16–22, 342–6, 351–2; R. Conquest (ed.) The Soviet Police System (London, 1968), pp. 13–18.

17. Fainsod, How Russia is Ruled, pp. 425–8.

18. R. Shailet ‘Stalinism and Soviet Legal Culture’, in R. Tucker (ed.) Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation (New York,

1977), pp. 164–6.

19. R. W. Thurston Life and Terror in Stalin’s Russia 1934–1941 (London, 1996), pp. 22–3; J. A. Getty and O. V. Naumov (eds) The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks 1932–1939 (New Haven, Conn., 1999), pp. 145–7; D. Rayfi eld Stalin and his Hangmen (London, 2004), pp. 239–40.

20. K. McDermott and J. Agnew The Comintern: A History of International Communism from Lenin to Stalin (London, 1996), pp. 148, 151.

21. B. A. Starkov The Trial that was not Held’, Europe – Asia Studies, 46 (1994), pp. 1308–9.

22. E. Ginzburg Into the Whirlwind (London, 1967), pp. 130–37.

23. V. Z. Rogovin 1937: Stalin’s Year of Terror (Oak Park, Mich., 1998), pp. 286–8.

24. Starkov, The Trial that was not Held’, pp. 1304–5; Rogovin, 1937, pp. 497–9.

25. Starkov, The Trial that was not Held’, p. 1300; Thurston, Life and Terror, pp. 59–60.

26. Thurston, Life and Terror, pp. 124–5, 129–31; A. Knight Beria: Stalin’s First Lieutenant (London, 1993), pp. 90–93; G. T. Rittersporn ‘Extra-Judicial Repression and the Courts: Their Relationship in the 1930s’, in P. H. Solomon (ed.) Reforming justice in Russia, 1864–1996 (NewTork, 1997), pp. 216–19.

27. S. Beria Beria, My Father: Inside Stalin’s Kremlin (London, 2001), p. 44.

28. In general see M. Parrish The Lesser Terror: Soviet State Security 1939–1953 (Westport, Conn., 1996).

29. Baynes, Hitler’s Speeches, vol. i., p. 220.

30. J. Biesemann Das Ermächtigungsgesetzt als Grundlage der Gesetzgebung im nationalsozialistischen Staat (Münster, 1985), pp. 250–53.

31. H. Kaden and L. Nestler (eds) Dokumente des Verbrechens: aus Akten des Dritten Reiches 1933–1945 (3 vols, Berlin, 1993), vol. i, p. 29, Verordnung zum Schutz von Volk und Staat, 28 February 1933; see too Biesemann, Das Ermächtigungsgesetz, pp. 253–63.

32. Kaden and Nestler, Dokumente des Verbrechens, vol. i., p. 31; Broszat, Hitler State, p. 329.

33. Kaden and Nestler, Dokumente des Verbrechens, vol. i, pp. 34–8; Broszat, Hitler State, pp. 330–31. On the courts H. Koch In the Name of the Volk: Political justice in Hitler’s Germany (London, 1989), p. 4; H. Schmidt ‘Beabsichtige ich die Todesstrafe zu beantragen’: die nationalsozialistische Sondergerichtsbarkeit im Oberlandesgerichtsbezirk Düsseldorf 1933 bis 1945 (Essen, 1998), pp. 27–9; B. Dörner ‘Heimtücke’: Das Gesetz als Waffe (Paderborn, 1998), pp. 20 ff.

34. Koch, In the Name of the Volk, pp. 45–8.

35. I. Müller Hitler’s Justice: the Courts of the Third Reich (London, 1991), pp. 86–7.

36. G. Werle]ustiz-Strafrecht und polizeiliche Verbrechenskämpfung im Dritten Reich (Berlin, 1989), pp. 533–42; U. Herbert Best: Biographische Studien über Radikalismus, Weltanschauung und Vernunft 1903–1989 (Bonn, 1996), pp. 150–51, 169. See also J.Tuchel’Dimensionen des Terrors: Funktionen der Konzentrationslager in Deutschland 1933–1945’, in D. Dahlmann and G. Hirschfeld (eds) Lager, Zwangsarbeit, Vertreibung und Deportation (Essen, 1999), p. 374, who estimates that 80,000 were held in protective custody for some period in 1933.

37. S. Lorant I Was Hitler’s Prisoner (London, 1935), pp. 32–42, 275–8.

38. Broszat, Hitler State, p. 333; H.-U. Thamer Verführung und Gewalt: Deutschland 1933–1945 (Berlin, 1986), p. 385.

39. Kaden and Nestler, Dokumente des Verbrechens, vol. i, pp. 183–4, Bestimmungen zur Durchführung von Exekutionen in ‘Sonderbehandlungsfälle’, 6 January 1943; N. Frei National Socialist Rule in Germany: the Führer State 1933–1945 (Oxford, 1993), pp. 114–15.

40. Broszat, Hitler State, p. 342.

41. J. Noakes and G. Pridham (eds) Nazism 1919–1945: a Documentary Reader (Exeter, 1984), p. 519.

42. A. Antonov-Ovseyenko The Time of Stalin: Portrait of a Tyranny (New York, 1981), pp. 211–13.

43. S. G. Wheatcroft The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings’, Europe – Asia Studies, 48 (1996), pp. 1332–3. A. Nove ‘Terror Victims – Is the Evidence Complete?’, Europe – Asia Studies, 46 (1994), pp. 535–7.

44. Getty and Naumov, Road to Terror, p. 588; J. O. Pohl The Stalinist Penal System (Jefferson, NC, 1997), p. 8.

45. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 11, 15; E. Bacon The Gulag at War: Stalin’s Forced Labour System in the Light of the Archives (London, 1994), pp. 28–30.

46. Nove, ‘Terror Victims’, p. 536; GUlag deaths in Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 48–9.

47. On estimates for German camps see Wheatcroft, ‘German and Soviet Repression’, pp. 1328–9; camp fi gures in W. Sofsky The Order of Terror: the Concentration Camp (Princeton, NJ, 1997), pp. 28–9, 34–5, 38; Tuchel, ‘Dimensionen des Terrors’, 372, 383.

48. Koch, In the Name of the Volk, p. 132.

49. Schmidt, ‘Beabsichtige ich die Todesstrafe’, p. 91.

50. Kaden and Nestler, Dokumente des Verbrechens, vol. i., pp. 162–3, Erlass Hitlers über die Verfolgung von Straftaten gegen das Reich, 7 December 1941; for a case study see F. B. Bakels Nacht und Nebel: Das Bericht eines holländischen Christen aus deutschen Gefängnissen und Konzentrationslagern (Frankfurt am Main, 1979).

51. On differing estimates of Jewish deaths see Wheatcroft, ‘Ausmass und Wesen’, p. 75.

52. F. Pingel Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft: Widerstand, Selbstbehauptung und Vernichtung im Konzentrationslager (Hamburg, 1978), p. 230.

53. McDermott, The History of the Comintern’, p. 35; A. Resis (ed.) Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics (Chicago, 1993), p. 277–8.

54. Ginsburg, Into the Whirlwind, p. 44.

55. V. S. Mil’bakh ‘Repression in the 57th Special Corps (Mongolian People’s Republic)’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 15 (2002), pp. 108–9.

56. Mil’bakh, ‘Repression in the 57th Corps’, pp. 109–11.

57. D. Volkogonov Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (London, 1991), p. 373.

58. Volkogonov, Stalin, p. 374.

59. N. Werth ‘A State against its People: Violence, Repression and Terror in the Soviet Union’, in N. Werth et al. The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (London, 1999), pp. 190–93.

60. M. Ilič The Great Terror in Leningrad: a Quantitative Analysis’, Europe – Asia Studies, 52 (2000), pp. 1518–20.

61. McDermott, ‘History of the Comintern’, p. 35.

62. McDermott and Agnew, The Comintern, pp. 145–9.

63. A. Lindenmeyr The First Political Trial: Countess Sofi a Panina’, Russian Review, 60 (2001), pp. 505–25.

64. Mil’bakh, ‘Repression in the 57th Corps’, p. 117. Accident rates were regularly reported to the army authorities as evidence of negligence and poor leadership before the terror. See F. Schauff ‘Company Choir of Terror: The Military Council of the 1930s – the Red Army Between the XVIIth and XVIIIth Party Congresses’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 12 (1999), pp. 132, 136, 142.

65. F. F. Benvenuti ‘Industry and Purge in the Donbass 1936–37’, Europe – Asia Studies, 45 (1993), pp. 60–63; see too D. L. Hoffmann The Great Terror on the Local Level: Purges in Moscow Factories’, in J. A. Getty and R. Manning (eds) Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 163–7.

66. Werth,’A State Against its People’, pp. 200–201; on the killing of clergy see M. Pabst Staatsterrorismus: Theorie und Praxis kommunistischer Herrschaft (Graz, 1997), p. 67.

67. M. Parrish The Downfall of the “Iron Commissar”: N. I. Ezhov 1938–40’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 14 (2001), pp. 72–99; Getty and Naumov, Road to Terror, p. 561.

68. Baynes, Hitler’s Speeches, p. 221.

69. P. Longerich The Unwritten Order: Hitler’s Role in the Final Solution (Stroud, 2001), pp. 19–26 on Hitler’s early views. On the conspiracy theory see K.-U. Merz Das Schreckbild: Deutschland und der Bolschewismus 1917 bis 1921 (Frankfurt am Main, 1995), pp. 457–71.

70. Kaden and Nestler, Dokumente des Verbrechens, vol. i, pp. 78–9, Vortrag Heinrich Himmlers über Wesen und Aufgaben der SS und der Polizei, January 1937.

71. A. Merson Communist Resistance in Nazi Germany (London, 1985), p. 32; Müller, Hitler’’s Justice, p. 56.

72. Lorant, Hitler’s Prisoner, pp. 92–3, 155.

73. K. Orth Das System der ns Konzentrationslager: Eine politische Organisationsgeschichte (Hamburg, 1999), pp. 47, 51–3; Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, pp. 69, 71.

74. Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, pp. 70–71.

75. N. Wachsmann ‘“Annihilation Through Labor”: The Killing of State Prisoners in the Third Reich’, Journal of Modern History, 71 (1999), p. 625.

76. G. J. Giles The Institutionalization of Homosexual Panic in the Third Reich’, in R. Gellately and N. Stoltzfus (eds) Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany (Princeton, NJ, 2001), p. 235.

77. Giles, ‘Homosexual Panic’, pp. 242–4.

78. G. Grau (ed.) Hidden Holocaust! Gay and Lesbian Persecution in Germany 1933–45 (London, 1995), pp. 4–7, 248–9, 251; Giles, ‘Homosexual Panic’, pp. 244–5; H.-G. Stümke ‘From the “People’s Consciousness of Right and Wrong” to “The Healthy Instincts of the Nation”: The Persecution of Homosexuals in Nazi Germany’, in M. Burleigh (ed.) Confronting the Nazi Past (London, 1996), pp. 154–65.

79. N. Wachsmann ‘Reform and Repression: Prisons and Penal Policy in Germany, 1918–1939’, University of London, PhD thesis, 2000, p. 215.

80. Wachsmann, ‘Reform and Repression’, p. 206.

81. G. Bock ‘Racism and Sexism in Nazi Germany: Motherhood, Compulsory Sterilization and the State’, in R. Bridenthal, A. Grossman and M. Kaplan (eds) When Biology became Destiny: Women in Weimar Germany and Nazi Germany (New York, 1984), pp. 276–80.

82. Y. Lozowick Hitler’s Bureaucrats: The Nazi Security Police and the Banality of Evil (London, 2000), pp. 20–21, 46–8. See too H. Benschel Bürokratie und Terror: Das Judenreferat der Gestapo Düsseldorf 1935–1945 (Essen, 2001).

83. E. A. Johnson Nazi Terror: the Gestapo, Jews, and Ordinary Germans (New York, 1999), pp. 408–11.

84. Johnson, Nazi Terror, pp. 385–7; K. Kwiet ‘Nach dem Pogrom: Stufen der Ausgrenzung’, in W. Benz (ed.) Die Juden in Deutschland 1933–1945: Leben unter nationalsozialistischer Herrschaft (Munich, 1988), pp. 596–614.

85. I. Erhenburg and V. Grossman The Complete Black Book of Russian Jewry (New Brunswick, NJ, 2002), pp. 423–4.

86. Johnson, Nazi Terror, pp. 322–8.

87. Lorant, Hitler’s Prisoner, p. 123.

88. Stalin, Works, vol. xiii, p. 111.

89. R. W. Thurston Tear and Belief in the USSR’s “Great Terror”: Response to Arrest 1935–1939’, Slavic Review, 45 (1986), p. 228.

90. H. Arendt Eichmann in Jerusalem: a Report on the Banality of Evil (London, 1963), p. 22; C. Browning Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (London, 1992).

91. K.-M. Mailmann and G. Paul ‘Omniscient, Omnipotent, Omnipresent? Gestapo, Society and Resistance’, in D. Crew (ed.) Nazism and German Society 1933–1945 (London, 1994), pp. 173–4; R. Gellately The Gestapo and German Society: Enforcing Racial Policy 1933–1945 (Oxford, 1990), pp. 44–6; G. Browder Foundations of the Nazi Police State: the Formation of Sipo and SD (Lexington, Kty, 1990), p. 235, who gives a figure of 7,000 for the Gestapo detective force in 1936.

92. On police routine see Wilhelm, Die Polizei im NS-Staat. In 1938 Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick asked the police to compile a card index (Volkskartei) on every inhabitant aged 5 to 70, a task completed by 1940 (pp. 109–10).

93. Mailmann and Paul ‘Gestapo, Society and Resistance’, pp. 175–7. During the war the Gestapo spent most of its time pursuing non-German political ‘enemies’. See for example R. Otto Wehmacht, Gestapo und sowjetische Kriegsgefangenen im deutschen Reichsgebiet 1941/42 (Munich, 1998).

94. R. Conquest Justice and the Legal System in the USSR (London, 1968), p. 6.

95. Thurston, Life and Terror, pp. 70–71.

96. See C. Graf ‘Kontinuitäten und Brüche. Von der Politischen Polizei der Weimarer Republik zur Geheimen Staatspolizei’, in G. Paul and K.-M. Mallmann (eds) Die Gestapo – Mythos und Realität (Darmstadt, 1995), pp. 73–83; J. Tuchel ‘Gestapa und Reichssicherheitshauptamt, Die Berliner Zentralinstitutionen der Gestapo’, in Paul and Mallmann, Gestapo, pp. 84–100.

97. Merson, Communist Resistance, pp. 50–51; on factory monitoring see K.-H. Roth Facetten des Terrors: Der Geheimdienst der ‘Deutsche Arbeitsfront’ und die Zerstörung der Arbeiterbewegung 1933–1938 (Bremen, 2000), pp. 13–21.

98. S. Fitzpatrick ‘Signals from Below: Soviet Letters of Denunciation of the 1930s’, Journal of Modern History, 68 (1996), p. 834; Thurston, Life and Terror, p. 71.

99. Fitzpatrick, ‘Signals from Below’, p. 835.

100. V. Kozlov ‘Denunciation and its Functions in Soviet Governance: a Study of Denunciations and their Bureaucratic Handling from Soviet Police Archives 1944–1953’, Journal of Modern History, 68 (1996), p. 876.

101. Gellately, Gestapo and German Society, p. 162; see too Johnson, Nazi Terror, p. 365, who shows that in Krefeld civilian denunciations began 24 per cent of cases, while 32 per cent were initiated by the police.

102. Malimann and Paul, ‘Gestapo, Society and Resistance’, p. 179.

103. R. Gellately ‘Denunciations in Twentieth-Century Germany: Aspects of Self-Policing in the Third Reich and the German Democratic Republic’, Journal of Modern History, 68 (1996), p. 939.

104. Fitzpatrick, ‘Signals from Below’, p. 861.

105. J. Connelly The Uses of Volksgemeinschaft: Letters to the NSDAP Kresileitung Eisenach, 1939–1940’, Journal of Modern History, 68 (1996), p. 926. On motivation see C. Arbogast Herrschaftsinstanzen der württembergischen NSDAP: Funktion, Sozialprofi l und Lebenswege einer regionalen NS-Elite 1920–1960 (Munich, 1998), pp. 102–11.

106. Fitzpatrick, ‘Signals from Below’, p. 848.

107. For example, Benvenuti, ‘Industry and Purge’, pp. 61–3, 68–9.

108. R. Evans ‘Social Outsiders in German History: From the Sixteenth Century to 1933’, in Gellately and Stoltzfus, Social Outsiders, pp. 20–44; see too G. Alexopoulos Stalin’s Outcasts: Aliens, Citizens and the Soviet State, 1926–1936 (Ithaca, NY, 2003), pp. 3–11.

109. S. Fitzpatrick ‘How the Mice Buried the Cat: scenes from the Great Purges of 1937 in the Russian Provinces’, Russian Review, 52 (1993), p. 319. no. Baynes, Hitler’s Speeches, vol. i., p. 230.

111. R. Gellately Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany (Oxford, 2001), pp. 51–69. See too B. Engelmann In Hitler’s Germany: Everyday Life in the Third Reich (London, 1988), pp. 34–5. Engelmann, discussing the camps with acquaintances after the war, records the following: ‘My parents spoke of the camps as having an important educational function. Of course in my house there was more talk of “dangerous enemies of the state”, and I also heard that they were dealt with severely.’

112. M. Ellman The Soviet 1937 Provincial Show Trials: Carnival or Terror?’, Europe – Asia Studies, 53 (2001), pp. 1221, 1223–33.

113. I. Zbarsky and S. Hutchinson Lenin’s Embalmers (London, 1998), pp. 108–9.

114. Connelly, ‘Uses of Volksgemeinschaff, p. 917.

115. I. Gutkin The Magic of Words: Symbolism, Futurism, Socialist Realism’, in B. G. Rosenthal (ed.) The Occult in Russian and Soviet Culture (Ithaca, NY, 1997), pp. 241–4.

116. E. Lyons Assignment Utopia (London, 1937), p. 372.

117. R. Rhodes Masters of Death: the SS Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust (New York, 2002), p. 219.

118. Kaden and Nestler, Dokumente des Verbrechens, vol. i., pp. 245, 247, Rede Heinrich Himmlers in Posen, 4 October 1943.

119. Resis, Molotov Remembers, pp. 265, 270.

 

Глава 6

1. J. Thies ‘Nazi Architecture – a Blueprint for World Domination: the Last Aims of Adolf Hitler’, in D. Welch (ed.) Nazi Propaganda (London, 1983), pp. 46–7.

2. T. J. Colton Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), p. 280.

3. Colton, Socialist Metropolis, p. 218.

4. K. Berton Moscow: an Architectural History (London, 1977), pp. 222–4.

5. Colton, Socialist Metropolis, p. 332; Berton, Moscow, p. 224.

6. R. Eaton Ideal Cities: Utopianism and the (Un) Built Environment (London, 2001), pp. 183–96 on Soviet utopianism; Colton, Socialist Metropolis, p. 333.

7. A. Speer Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs (London, 1970), pp. 74, 132–3.

8. D. Münk Die Organisation des Raumes im Nationalsozialismus (Bonn, 1993), p. 304; A. Scobie Hitler’s State Architecture: the Impact of Classical Antiquity (London, 1990), pp. 110–12; H. Weihsmann Bauen unterm Hakenkreuz: Architektur des Untergangs (Vienna, 1998), pp. 19–20.

9. Weihsmann, Bauen unterm Hakenkreuz, p. 272; Scobie, Hitler’s State Architecture, p. 112.

10. W. C. Brumfi eld A History of Russian Architecture (Cambridge, 1993), p. 486; Colton, Socialist Metropolis, p. 332.

11. E. Forndran Die Stadt-und Industriegründungen Wolfsburg und Salzgitter (Frankfurt am Main, 1984), pp. 67–8.

12. L. E. Blomquist ‘Some Utopian Elements in Stalinist Art’, Russian Review, 11 (1984), pp. 298–301; Colton, Socialist Metropolis, p. 223. See too A. J. Klinghoffer Red Apocalypse: the Religious Evolution of Soviet Communism (Lanham, Md, 1996), pp. 48 ff.

13. Scobie, Hitler’s State Architecture, p. 97.

14. Forndran, Die Stadt-und Industriegründungen, pp. 67–8.

15. Colton, Socialist Metropolis, p. 200.

16. S. F. Starr ‘Visionary Town Planning during the Cultural Revolution’, in S. Fitzpatrick (ed.) Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928–1931 (Bloomington, Ind., 1978), p. 218.

17. R. Stites Revolutionary Dreams: Utopian Vision and Experimental Life in the Russian Revolution (Oxford, 1989), p. 202.

18. M. Droste Bauhaus, 1919–1933 (Cologne, 1998), pp. 227–8, 233–5.

19. H. Giesler Ein anderer Hitler: Bericht seines Architekten Hermann Giesler (Leoni, 1977), pp. 199, 206; G. Troost (ed.) Das Bauen im neuen Reich (Bayreuth, 1939), p. 131.

20. Weihsmann, Bauen unterm, Hakenkreuz, pp. 274–5.

21. Thies, ‘Nazi Architecture’, pp. 45–6.

22. Colton, Socialist Metropolis, p. 254.

23. Colton, Socialist Metropolis, pp. 277–8.

24. Berton, Moscow, p. 226.

25. Berton, Moscow, pp. 228–9; V. Paperny ‘Moscow in the 1930s and the Emergence of a New City’, in H. Günther The Culture of the Stalin Period (London, 1990), pp. 233–4.

26. Colton, Socialist Metropolis, pp. 257–9.

27. Colton, Socialist Metropolis, p. 327.

28. Brumfi eld, History of Russian Architecture, p. 49.

29. Münk, Die Organisation des Raumes, p. 304.

30. Forndran, Die Stadt-und Industrigründungen, pp. 88–9; M. Cluet L’Architecture du Hie Reich: Origines intellectuelles et visées idéologiques (Bern, 1987), pp. 201–4.

31. Weihsmann, Bauen unterm Hakenkreuz, p. 28.

32. Münk, Die Organisation des Raumes, pp. 306–7; on Wolfsburg see C. Schneider Stadtgründung im Dritten Reich: Wolfsburg und Salzgitter (Munich, 1979).

33. Weihsmann, Bauen unterm Hakenkreuz, p. 22.

34. Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 140. The calculation was in current (1960s) marks.

35. T. Harlander and G. Fehl (eds) Hitlers sozialer Wohnungsbau 1940–1945: Wohnungs politik, Baugestaltung und Siedlungsplanung (Hamburg, 1986), p. 111: Memorandum of D AF ‘Die sozialen Aufgaben nach dem Kriege’, 1941.

36. Harlander and Fehl, Hitlers sozialer Wohnungsbau, p. 116: DAF Homesteads Offi ce Totale Planung und Gestaltung’, 1940.

37. Harlander and Fehl Hitlers sozialer Wohnungsbau, pp. 131–2: Hitler Decree ‘Das Grundgesetz des sozialen Wohnungsbau’, 25 November 1940.

38. On the plans for the new economy area see for example H. Kahrs ‘Von der “Grossraumwirtschaft” zur “Neuen Ordnung”’, in H. Kahrs (ed.) Modelle für ein deutsches Europa: Ökonomie und Herrschaft im Grosswirtschaftsraum (Berlin, 1992), pp. 9–26.

39. Thies, ‘Nazi Architecture’, pp. 54–8.

40. S. Steinbacher ‘Musterstadt Auschwitz’: Germanisierungspolitik und Judenmord in Ostoberschlesien (Munich, 2000), pp. 223–4, 238.

41. D. Dwork and R. J. van Pelt Auschwitz: 1270 to the Present (New York, 1996), p. 156.

42. Dwork and van Pelt, Auschwitz, pp. 241–4.

43. Steinbacher, ‘Musterstadt Auschwitz’, p. 224; G. Aly and S. Heim Architects of Annihilation: Auschwitz and the Logic of Destruction (London, 2002), pp. 106–12.

44. Colton, Socialist Metropolis, p. 284.

45. Starr, ‘Visionary Town Planning’, pp. 208, 210; Stites, Revolutionary Dreams, pp. 197–8.

46. Starr, ‘Visionary Town Planning’, p. 238; Stites, Revolutionary Dreams, pp. 97–8.

47. Blomquist, ‘Utopian Elements in Stalinist Art’, p. 298; on the ambiguity between modernity and progress see C. Caldenby The Vision of a Rational Architecture’, Russian Review, 11 (1984), pp. 269–82.

48. Brumfi eld, History of Russian Architecture, pp. 486–7.

49. Colton, Socialist Metropolis, p. 223.

50. S. Kotkin Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as Civilization (Berkeley, Calif., 1995), pp. 34, 397.

51. Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain, pp. 116–17, 120; see too Caldenby, ‘Rational Architecture’, pp. 270–71.

52. Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain, p. 117.

53. Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain, pp. 125, 134–5.

54. F. Rouvidois ‘Utopia and Totalitarianism’, in R. Schner, G. Claeys and L. T. Sargent (eds) Utopia: the Search for the Ideal Society in the Western World (New York, 2000), p. 330.

55. D. Schoenbaum Hitler’s Social Revolution: Class and Status in Nazi Germany 1933–1939 (New York, 1966), p. 38.

56. R. Zitelmann Hitler: the Politics of Seduction (London, 1999), pp. 109, 127; E. Syring Hitler: seine politische Utopie (Frankfurt am Main, 1994), pp. 170–71.

57. Zitelmann, Hitler, pp. 145, 147.

58. S. Fitzpatrick ‘Ascribing Class: The Construction of Social Identity in Soviet Russia’, Journal of Modern History, 65 (1993), pp. 749–50; see too G. Alexopoulos Stalin’s Outcasts: Aliens, Citizens, and the Soviet State 1926–1936 (Ithaca, NY, 2003), pp. 14–17, 21–5.

59. Zitelmann, Hitler, pp. 127, 145; Schoenbaum, Hitler’s Social Revolution, pp. 65–6; F. L. Kroll Utopie als Ideologie: Geschichtsdenken und politisches Handeln im Dritten Reich (Paderborn, 1998), pp. 35–9.

60. A. Kolnai The War Against the West (London, 1938), pp. 73, 80.

61. Münk, Organisation des Raumes, p. 67.

62. F. Janka Die braune Gesellschaft: ein Volk wird formatiert (Stuttgart, 1997), pp. 172–85, 196–7; see too Syring, Hitler: seine politische Utopie, pp. 22–9, 210.

63. Münk, Organisation des Raumes, p. 63

64. Schoenbaum, Hitler’s Social Revolution, p. 62.

65. Schoenbaum, Hitler’s Social Revolution, p. 57.

66. A. Lüdtke The “Honor of Labor”: Industrial Workers and the Power of Symbols under National Socialism’, in D. Crew (ed.) Nazism and German Society 1933–1945 (London, 1994), pp. 67–109.

67. Zitelmann, Hitler, pp. 154–6.

68. Schoenbaum, Hitler’s Social Revolution, p. 67; see too the statistical analyses in D. Mühlberger (ed.) The Social Basis of European Fascist Movements (London, 1987), pp. 76–94.

69. Fitzpatrick, ‘Ascribing Class’, pp. 749–50.

70. Alexopoulos, Stalin’s Outcasts, pp. 24–8, 70–73, 90–95; Fitzpatrick, ‘Ascribing Class’, pp. 756–7.

71. L. Siegelbaum ‘Production Collectives and Communes and the “Imperatives” of Soviet Industrialization’, Slavic Review, 45 (1986), pp. 65–79.

72. J. C. McClelland ‘Utopianism versus Revolutionary Heroism in Bolshevik Policy: the Proletarian Culture Debate’, Slavic Review, 39 (1980), pp. 404–7, 415.

73. J. Stalin Problems of Leninism (Moscow, 1947), pp. 421–2, 424, ‘Results of the First Five-Year Plan’, CC Plenum, 7 January 1933.

74. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, pp. 498–9, ‘Report on the Work of the Central Committee to the 17th Congress’, 26 January 1934.

75. K. E. Bailes Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin (Princeton, NJ, 1978), p. 166.

76. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 502.

77. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, pp. 544–6, ‘On the Draft Constitution of the USSR’, 25 November 1936: ‘…all the exploiting classes have been eliminated. There remains the working class. There remains the peasant class. There remains the intelligentsia.’

78. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 503.

79. Zitelmann, Hitler, p. 164.

80. Zitelmann, Hitler, p. 168; see too Syring, Hitler: seine politische Utopie, pp. 184–7.

81. See for example A. Angelopoulos Planisme etprogres social (Paris, 1951) esp. Ch. 3; E. Lederer Planwirtschaft (Tübingen, 1932); F. Lenz Wirtschaftsplanung und Planwirtschaft (Berlin, 1948).

82. Zitelmann, Hitler, p. 321.

83. P. Kluke ‘Hitler und das Volkwagenprojekt’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 8 (1960), p. 349.

84. On Todt see J. Herf Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture, and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 199–200; on the Westwall see J. Heyl The Construction of the Westwall. An Example of National Socialist Policy-Making’, Central European History, 14 (1981), p. 77.

85. Herf, Reactionary Modernism, pp. 200, 204–6.

86. Herf, Reactionary Modernism, p. 168. An interesting example of the new view of technology and the people’s community is given in K. Gispen ‘Visions of Utopia: Social Emancipation, Technological Progress and Anticapitalism in Nazi Inventor Policy,

1933–1945’, Central European History, 32 (1999), pp. 35–51.

87. Bailes, Technology and Society, pp. 160–63.

88. Colton, Socialist Metropolis, p. 259; K. Clark ‘Engineers of Human Souls in an Age of Industrialization: Changing Cultural Models, 1929–31’, in W. Rosenberg and L. Siegelbaum (eds) Social Dimensions of Soviet Industrialization (Bloomington, Ind., 1993), p. 249.

89. Bailes, Technology and Society, p. 163.

90. Clark, ‘Engineers of Human Souls’, pp. 250–51; Bailes, Technology and Society, pp. 176–7.

91. Bailes, Technology and Society, p. 289; K. E. Bailes ‘Stalin and the Making of a New Elite: A Comment’, Slavic Review, 39 (1980), pp. 268–9; S. Fitzpatrick ‘Stalin and the Making of a New Elite, 1928–1939’, Slavic Review, 38 (1979), pp. 385–7, 396–8.

92. Zitelmann, Hitler, p. 182.

93. On Eichmann and the security bureaucracy see Y. Lozowick Hitler’s Bureaucrats: the Nazi Security Police and the Banality of Evil (London, 2000); H. Safrian Die Eichmann Männer (Vienna, 1993).

94. M. Kater The Nazi Tarty: a Social Profi le of Members and Leaders, 1919–1945 (Oxford, 1983), pp. 252–3, 264 (fi gures based

on statistical sampling); H. F. Ziegler Nazi Germany’s New Aristocracy: the SS Leadership, 1925–1939 (Princeton, NJ, 1989), pp. 102–5.

95. Ziegler, Nazi Germany’s New Aristocracy, p. 73.

96. I. Halfi n The Rape of the Intelligentsia: A Proletarian Foundation Myth’, Russian Review, 56 (1997), pp. 103, 106; A. Lunacharsky On Education: Selected Articles and Speeches (Moscow, 1981), lecture on ‘Education and the New Man’, 23 May 1928.

97. S. Fitzpatrick Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s (Oxford, 1999), pp. 75–6.

98. H. Rauschning Hitler Speaks (London, 1939), pp. 241–3.

99. Rauschning, Hitler Speaks, p. 247; Janka, braune Gesellschaft, pp. 183–91, 200–201.

100. P. Weindling Health, Race and German Politics between National Unifi cation and Nazism 1870–1945 (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 7–8; P. Weingart ‘Eugenic Utopias: Blueprints for the Rationalization of Human Evolution’, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook: Vol VIII (Dordrecht, 1984), p. 175.

101. L. R. Graham ‘Science and Values: The Eugenics Movement in Germany and Russia in the 1920s’, American Historical Review, 82 (1977), pp. 1132, 1145–7.

102. J. Stalin Works (13 vols, Moscow 1953–55), vol. i, p. 316, ‘Anarchism or Socialism?’ 1906–7; see too V. N. Soyfer Lysenko and the Tragedy of Soviet Science (New Brunswick, NJ, 1994), pp. 200–203.

103. Graham, ‘Science and Values’, pp. 1139–43, 1151; F. Hirsch ‘Race without the Practice of Racial Polities’, Slavic Review, 61 (2002), pp. 32–4.

104. Sofer, Lysenko, chs 8–11; L. R. Graham Science, Philosophy and Human Behaviour in the Soviet Union (New York, 1987), pp. 221–2.

105. Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics, pp. 436–7; R. Proctor Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis (Cambridge, Mass., 1988), p. 286.

106. Graham, ‘Science and Values’, p. 1143.

107. Rauschning, Hitler Speaks, p. 243.

108. Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics, pp. 522–7; H. Friedlander The Exclusion and Murder of the Disabled’, in

R. Gellately and N. Stoltzfus (eds) Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany (Princeton, NJ, 2001), pp. 146–8; Weingart, ‘Eugenic Utopias’, pp. 183–4.

109. Friedlander, ‘Murder of the Disabled’, p. 148.

110. Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics, pp. 529–30, 533; G. Bock ‘Racism and Sexism in Nazi Germany: Motherhood, Compulsory Sterilization and the State’, in R. Bridenthal, A. Grossmann and M. Kaplan (eds) When Biology became Destiny: Women in Weimar Germany and Nazi Germany (New York, 1984), pp. 276–7, 279–80. Some 2000 were also castrated by 1940, including women, who were subjected to overectomies. See U. Kaminsky Zwangssterilisation und ‘Euthanasie’ im Rheinland (Cologne, 1995), pp. 535–7, whose fi gures show that sterilization proceeded most rapidly between 1934 and 1936, and H. Friedlander The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution (Chapel Hill, NC, 1995), pp. 26–30.

111. Proctor, Racial Hygiene, pp. 203–4; Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics, pp. 526–9.

112. Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics, pp. 530–32. See too S. Maiwald and G. Mischler Sexualität unter dem Hakenkreuz (Hamburg, 1999), pp. 105–16.

113. P. Bleuel Strength through Joy: Sex and Society in Nazi Germany (London, 1973), p. 194; Weingart, ‘Eugenic Utopias’, pp. 178–80.

114. K. H. Minuth (ed.) Akten der Reichskanzlei: Regierung Hitler 1933–1938 (Boppard am Rhein, 1983) vol. ii, pp. 1188–9; Maiwald and Mischler, Sexualität, pp. 108–9.

115. L. Pine Nazi Family Policy 1933–1945 (Oxford, 1997), p. 132.

116. U. Frevert Women in German History (Oxford, 1989), pp. 232–3; R. Grunberger A Social History of the Third Reich (London, 1968), p. 300.

117. Frevert, Women in German History, p. 237; on the Pfl ichtjahr see F. Petrick ‘Eine Untersuchung zur Beseitigung der Arbeitslosigkeit unter der deutschen Jugend in den Jahren 1933 bis 1935’, Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Part I (1967), pp. 291, 299; on employment see S. Bajohr Die Hälfte der Fabrik: Geschichte der Frauenarbeit in Deutschland 1914 bis 1945 (Marburg, 1979), pp. 2–52.

118. Frevert, Women in German History, pp. 236–7; Grunberger, Social History of the Third Reich, pp. 312–13.

119. Proctor, Racial Hygiene, pp. 283–4.

120. Bleuel, Strength through Joy, p. 111.

121. On Himmler see Kroll, Utopie als Ideologie, pp. 213–22; see too J. Hoberman ‘Primacy of Performance: Superman not Superathlete’, in J. A. Mangan (ed.) Shaping the Superman. Fascist Body as Political Icon – Aryan Fascism (London, 1999), pp. 78–80.

122. I. Heinemann ‘Rasse, Siedlung, deutsches Blut’: Das Rasse– & Siedlungshauptamt der SS und die rassenpolitische Neuordnung Europas (Göttingen, 2003), pp. 64–5; on race classifi cation in Europe see I. Heinemann’ “Another Type of Perpetrator”: The SS Racial Experts and Forced Population Movements in the Occupied Regions’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 15 (2001), pp. 389–93, 395–9.

123. R. J. Lifton The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (London, 1986), pp. 25, 41–5, 469–87; D. Peukert The Genesis of the “Final Solution” from the Spirit of Science’, in Crew (ed.), Nazism and German Society, p. 285.

124. Lifton, Nazi Doctors, p. 477.

125. Proctor, Racial Hygiene, p. 196.

126. E. P. Russell ‘“Speaking of Annihilation”: Mobilizing for War against Human and Insect Enemies’, Journal of American History,

82 (1996), pp. 1519–22; E. Kogon, H. Langbein and A. Riickeri (eds) Nazi Mass Murder: A Documentary History of the Use of Poison Gas (New Haven, Conn., 1993), pp. 146–7, 193–5, 206–9.

127. Friedlander, ‘Murder of the Disabled’, pp. 150–52; Proctor, Racial Hygiene, p. 186; see too M. Burleigh Death and Deliverance:

‘Euthanasia’ in Germany 1900–1945 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 96–7, 112–13; Friedlander, Origins of Nazi Genocide, pp. 37–40.

128. Lifton, Nazi Doctors, p. 45; Friedlander, ‘Murder of the Disabled’, p. 151; S. Kühl The Relationship between Eugenics and the socalled “Euthanasia Action” in Nazi Germany’, in M. Szöllösi-Janze (ed.) Science in the Third Reich (Oxford, 2001), pp. 201–3, who argues that war was the primary incentive to start killing.

129. Friedlander, ‘Murder of the Disabled’, pp. 154–5; Friedlander, Origins of Nazi Genocide, pp. 83–8.

130. Friedlander, ‘Murder of the Disabled’, pp. 155–6; Proctor, Racial Hygiene, pp. 206–8.

131. K. Pinnow ‘Cutting and Counting: Forensic Medicine as a Science of Society in Bolshevik Russia, 1920–29’, in D. Hoffmann and Y. Kotsonis (eds) Russian Modernity: Politics, Knowledge, Practices (London, 2000), p. 123.

132. Fitzpatrick Everyday Stalinism, pp. 117–22, 130–32; Alexopoulos, Stalin’s Outcasts, pp. 169–75.

133. P. Barton Uinstitution concentrationnaire en Russe 1930–1957 (Paris, 1959), p. 56.

134. S. Allan Comrades and Citizens: Soviet People (London, 1938), pp. 122, 155–6.

135. A. E. Gorsuch ‘NEP Be Damned! Young Militants in the 1920s and the Culture of Civil War’, Russian Review, 56 (1997), pp. 576–7. Smoking was also condemned as harmful to the Soviet ‘body’.

136. H. K. Geiger The Family in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), pp. 88–90.

137. Geiger, Family in Soviet Russia, p. 190; M. Buckley Women and Ideology in the Soviet Union (New York, 1989), pp. 134–5.

138. Geiger, Family in Soviet Russia, p. 94.

139. Geiger, Family in Soviet Russia, p. 95; on attitudes to sexual emancipation see E. Naimark Sex in Public: the Incarnation of Early Soviet Ideology (Princeton, NJ, 1997).

140. Allan, Comrades and Citizens, pp. 84–5; Geiger, Family in Soviet Russia, p. 92.

141. Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 128–9; Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, p. 152.

142. Geiger, Family in Soviet Russia, p. 194.

143. Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 129–31; Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, p. 155; Geiger, Family in Soviet Russia, pp.

193–5; S. G. Solomon ‘The demographic argument in Soviet debates over the legalization of abortion in the 1920s’, Cahiers du monde russe, 33 (1992), pp. 60–65.

144. Halfi n, ‘Rape of the Intelligentsia’, p. 104; McClelland, ‘Utopianism versus Revolutionary Heroism’, p. 405.

145. R. A. Bauer The New Man in Soviet Psychology (Cambridge, Mass., 1952), pp. 124, 132, 143–50.

146. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, pp. 522–33.

147. L. Siegelbaum Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR, 1935–1941 (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 68–71.

148. Siegelbaum, Stakhanovism, p. 73.

149. V. Bonnell The Iconography of the Worker in Soviet Political Art’, in L. Siegelbaum and R. Suny (eds) Making Workers Soviet: Power Class and Identity (Ithaca, NY, 1994), pp. 361–2; Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, pp. 73–5; K. Clark ‘Utopian Anthropology as a Context for Stalinist Literature’, in R. Tucker (ed.) Stalinism Essays in Historical Interpretation (New York, 1977), pp. 185–6.

150. Clark, ‘Utopian Anthropology’, pp. 183–4; Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, p.77; Bonnell, ‘Iconography of the Worker’, pp. 367–9.

151. Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 108–9, 112; Geiger, Family in Soviet Russia, p. 187.

152. Buckley, Women and Ideology, pp. 118–19; Siegelbaum, Stakhanovism, pp. 190–91.

153. Geiger, Family in Soviet Russia, p. 177.

154. Buckley, Women and Ideology, p. 117.

155. J. E. Bowlt and M. Drutt (eds) Amazons of the Avant-Garde (London, 1999), pp. 54–5; Bonnell, ‘Iconography of the Worker’, pp. 369, 71.

156. K. Theweleit Male Fantasies. Male bodies: psychoanalysing the white terror (Oxford, 1989), p. 163; B. Taylor and W. van der Will (eds) The Nazifi cation of Art: Art, Design, Music, Architecture and Film in the Third Reich (Winchester, 1990),

p. 63. See too J. A. Mangan ‘Icon of Monumental Brutality: Art and the Aryan Man’, in Mangan, Shaping the Superman, pp. 139–49.

157. Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, p. 46.

158. Blomquist, ‘Utopian Elements’, p. 300; Rouvidois, ‘Utopia and Totalitarianism’, p. 322.

159. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 531.

160. Rouvidois, ‘Utopia and Totalitarianism’ p. 324.

161. Fitzpatrick, Everyday Stalinism, p. 68.

162. Allan, Comrades and Citizens, pp. 208–9.

163. See R. Gellately Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany (Oxford, 2001) and C. Koonz The Nazi Conscience (Cambridge, Mass., 2003), which both explore different ways in which ordinary Germans came to accept and justify the dictatorship.

164. Rouvidois, ‘Utopia and Totalitarianism’, p. 330.

165. E. Kamenka ‘Soviet Philosophy’, in A. Smirenko (ed.) Social Thought in the Soviet Union (Chicago, 1969), pp. 89–90;

K. Bayertz ‘From Utopia to Science? The Development of Socialist Theory between Utopia and Science’, Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook: Vol VIII (Dordrecht, 1984), pp. 93–110. See too L. R. Graham Science, Philosophy and Human Behaviour in the Soviet Union (New York, 1987), esp. Chs. v – vii.

166. The complex relationship between modern science and the regime is explored in Szöllösi-Janze, Science in the Third Reich; see too M. Renneberg and M. Walker (eds) Science, TechnologyandNationalSocialism (Cambridge, 1994).

167. J. W. Baird To Die for Germany: Heroes in the Nazi Pantheon (Bloomington, Ind., 1990).

168. Bauer, New Man, pp. 144–5; on abortion see Geiger, Family in Soviet Russia, p. 195.

 

Глава 7

1. G. C. Guins Soviet Law and Soviet Society (The Hague, 1954), p. 29.

2. A. Koenen Der Fall Carl Schmitt; sein Aufstieg zum ‘Kronjuristen des Dritten Retches’ (Darmstadt, 1995), p. 612.

3. J. Stalin Problems of Leninism (Moscow, 1947), pp. 569–78, ‘Dialectical and Historical Materialism’, September 1938; see too E. Kamenka ‘Soviet Philosophy 1917–1967’, in A. Smirenko (ed.) Social Thought in the Soviet Union (Chicago, 1969), p. 53. Primers on dialectical materialism were issued in printruns of 250,000 to 500,000.

4. N. Harding Leninism (London, 1996), p. 226.

5. R. T. de George Patterns of Soviet Thought (New York, 1966), pp. 171–2.

6. G. Wetter Dialectical Materialism: A Historical and Systematic Survey of Philosophy in the Soviet Union (New York, 1958), pp. 219–20.

7. A. Hitler Mein Kampf, ed. D. C. Watt (London, 1968), p. 258; W. Maser (ed.) Hitler’s Letters and Notes (New York, 1977), p. 280; D. Gasman The Scientifi c Origins of National Socialism (London, 1971), pp. 47–9.

8. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 260; Maser, Hitler’s Letters and Notes, p. 280.

9. E. Jäckel Hitler’s World View: a Blueprint for Power (Middleton, Conn., 1981), p. 94.

10. A. Hitler The Secret Book, ed. T. Taylor (New York, 1961), p. 6; see too E. Fraenkel The Dual State. A Contribution to the Theory of Dictatorship (New York, 1941), pp. 108–9, citing Hans Gerber’s view that National Socialist political thought was ‘existential and biological, its data being the primal unique life process’.

11. Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 268–9.

12. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 578; Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 262.

13. P. van Paassen Visions Rise and Change (New York, 1955), pp. 100–106.

14. J. Bergman The Image of Jesus in the Russian Revolutionary Movement. The Case of Russian Marxism’, International Review of Social History, 25 (1990), p. 226.

15. P. J. Duncan Russian Messianism: Third Rome, Revolution, Communism and After (London, 2000), pp. 51–2; D. G. Rowley Millenarian Bolshevism, 1900–1920 (New York, 1987), pp. 355–72; W. B. Hubbard ‘Godless Communists’: Atheism and Society in Soviet Russia 1917–1932 (Dekalb, Ill., 2000), pp. 30–35.

16. V. Lenin Collected Works (45 vols., Moscow, 1963), vol. xxxv, p. 121, letter to Maxim Gorky, 13 or 14 November 1913, pp. 127–8, letter to Maxim Gorky, November 1913. See too D. V. Pospielovsky A History of Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Soviet Anti-Religious Policies: Vol I: A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory and Practice (London, 1987), pp. 1–17.

17. Hubbard, ‘Godless Communists’, p. 47.

18. M. A. Meersoix The Political Philosophy of the Russian Orthodox Episcopate in the Soviet Period’, in G. Hosking (ed.) Church, Nation and State in Russia and Ukraine (London, 1991), p. 217.

19. van Paassen, Visions Rise and Change, p. 63; E. Trubetskoy ‘The Bolshevist Utopia and the Religious Movement in Russia’, in M. Bohachevsky-Chomiak and B. G. Rosenthal (eds) A Revolution of the Spirit: Crisis of Values in Russia 1890–1918 (Newtonville, Mass., 1982.), pp. 331–2, 336–8.

20. M. Bourdeaux Opium of the People: the Christian Religion in the USSR (London, 1965), p. 51; Hubbard, ‘Godless Communists’, pp. 58–9; J. S. Curtiss The Russian Church and the Soviet State (Gloucester, Mass., 1965), pp. 200–203; A. J. Klinghoffer Red Apocalypse: the Religious Evolution of Soviet Communism (Lanham, Md, 1996), pp. 113–14.

21. Pospielovsky, Marxist-Leninist Atheism: I, pp. 30–34.

22. Hubbard, ‘Godless Communists’, pp. 62–3; D. Peris Storming the Heavens: the Soviet League of the Militant Godless (Ithaca, NY, 1998), pp. 48–9.

23. D. V. Pospielovsky A History of Marxist-Leninist Atheism and Anti-Religious Policies, Vol II: Soviet Anti-Religious Campaigns and Persecutions (London, 1988), p. 19; C. de Grunwald God and the Soviets (London, 1961), pp. 46–7, 79.

24. de Grunwald, God and the Soviets, pp. 73–9; F. Corley (ed.) Religion in the Soviet Union (New York, 1996), p. 119, instructions from Roslavl District Committee to Party offi cials and the League of the Militant Godless, 15 April 1937.

25. Bergman, The Image of Jesus’, pp. 240–42.

26. Pospielovsky, Marxist-Leninist Atheism: II, pp. 48–9.

27. M. Spinka The Church in Soviet Russia (Oxford, 1956), p. 38.

28. Bourdeaux, Opium of the People, p. 54; G. L. Freeze ‘Counter-reformation in Russian Orthodoxy: Popular Response to Religious Innovation, 1922–1925’, Slavic Review, 54 (1995), pp. 305–39.

29. Spinka, Church in Soviet Russia, pp. 62–6; Bourdeaux, Opium of the People, p. 54.

30. Pospielovsky, Marxist-Leninist Atheism: I, p. 51.

31. Pospielovsky, Marxist-Leninist Atheism: II, p. 34.

32. W. H. Chamberlin Soviet Russia: a Living Record and a History (Boston, 1938), p. 318; Pospielovskyj Marxist-Leninist Atheism: J, pp. 44–5.

33. de Grunwald, God and the Soviets, p. 54; Pospielovsky, Marxist-Leninist Atheism: II, p. 67.

34. Pospielovsky, Marxist-Leninist Atheism: II, pp. 66–8.

35. Curtiss, The Russian Church, pp. 228–9.

36. Pospielovsky, Marxist-Leninist Atheism: I, pp. 61–4; Curtiss, The Russian Church, p. 232.

37. A. Luukkanen The Religious Policy of the Stalinist State (Helsinki, 1997), pp. 53–4; Corley, Religion in the Soviet Union, p.

118. Other subjects included ‘The tale of christ and other dying and allegedly risen gods’, ‘Religion and the church in the service of international fascism’; and so on.

38. Pospielovsky, Marxist-Leninist Atheism: I, p. 55; Curtiss, The Russian Church, pp. 212, 253; see too G. Young Power and the Sacred in Revolutionary Russia: Religious Activists in the Village (University Park, Pa., 1997).

39. van Paassen, Visions Rise and Change, pp. 44–5, 72–3.

40. Peris, Storming the Heavens, p. 224 for the census result. Out of 98,410,000 census returns, 42,243,000 defi ned themselves as atheists. On bishops see Pospielovsky, Marxist-Leninist Atheism: II, pp. 67–8.

41. The Moscow Patriarchate The Truth about Religion in Russia (London, 1944); Spinka, Church in Soviet Russia, pp.82–6; S. M. Miner Stalin’s Holy War: Religion, Nationalism and Alliance Politics, 1941–1945 (Chapel Hill, NC, 2003), pp. 96–8.

42. Bourdeaux, Opium of the People, p. 234; Miner, Stalin’s Holy War, p. 99.

43. Pospielovsky, Marxist-Leninist Atheism: II, p. 96; I, p. 71; Peris, Storming the Heavens, p. 222.

44. B. R. Bociorkiw ‘Religion and Atheism in Soviet Society’, in R. H. Marshall (ed.) Aspects of Religion in the Soviet Union 1917–1967 (Chicago, 1971), pp. 45–6.

45. van Paassen, Visions Rise and Change, p. 60; Duncan, Russian Messianism, p. 58.

46. S. Roberts The House that Hitler Built (London, 1938), p. 268; M. Bendiscioli The New Racial Paganism (London, 1939), p. 22.

47. Meerson, ‘Russian Orthodox Episcopate’, p. 218.

48. P. F. Douglas God Among the Germans (Philadelphia, 1935), pp. 278–9.

49. K. Scholder A Requiem for Hitler and Other New Perspectives on the German Church Struggle (Philadelphia, 1989), pp. 54–5; Douglas, God Among the Germans, pp. 19–21.

50. A. Kolnai The War Against the West (London, 1938), pp. 247, 267: ‘no brave man wants another life’, claimed one German theologian.

51. Scholder, Requiem for Hitler, pp. 41–2.

52. Douglas, God Among the Germans, pp. 72–4; W. Künneth and H. Schreiner (eds) Die Nation vor Gott (Berlin, 1937), pp. 403–22.

53. Kolnai, War Against the West, pp. 233–4; Douglas, God Among the Germans, p. 74.

54. Künneth and Streiner, Nation vor Gott, pp. 444 ff; Kolnai, War Against the West, p. 283; Douglas, God Among the Germans, p. 58.

55. K. Scholder ‘Die evangelische Kirche in der Sicht der nationalsozialistischen Führung’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 16

(1968), p. 18–19; Douglas, God Among the Germans, pp. 87–91; on Hauer see Kolnai, War Against the West, p. 283.

56. H. Trevor-Roper (ed.) Hitler’s Table Talk 1941–1944 (London, 1984), p. 191, 8–9 January 1942.

57. Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s Table Talk, p. 59, 14 October 1941; p. 125, 11 November 1941.

58. Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s Table Talk, p. 314, 8 February 1942: ‘The evil that’s gnawing our vitals is our priests, of both creeds.’

59. Douglas, God Among the Germans, pp. 2–3; Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s Table Talk, pp. 60–61, 14 October 1941; on Hitler’s religiosity see too H. Buchheim Glaubenskrise im Dritten Reich: Drei Kapitel nationalsozialistischer Religionspolitik (Stuttgart, 1953), pp. 9–16.

60. Douglas, God Among the Germans, pp. 14–17; Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s Table Talk, p. 59; D. Gasman The Scientifi c Origins of National Socialism (London, 1971), pp. 162–9.

61. Roberts, House that Hitler Built, p. 270; on Rosenberg see Douglas, God Among the Germans, pp. 30 ff.

62. M. Burleigh The Third Reich: a New History (London, 2000), p. 253; Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 419–20.

63. Douglas, God Among the Germans, pp. 212–13, 217; V. Barnett For the Soul ofthe People: ProtestantProtest againstHitler(Oxford, 1992), pp. 32–4.

64. Scholder, Requiem for Hitler, pp. 101–2; Barnett, Soul of the People, pp. 34–5.

65. Scholder, Requiem for Hitler, pp. 77–9, 90–92, 103.

66. Scholder, Requiem for Hitler, p. 93.

67. Text in P. Matheson (ed.) The Third Reich and the Christian Churches (Edinburgh, 1981), pp. 39–40, speech by Dr Krause, 13 November 1933; Douglas, God Among the Germans, pp. 81–4.

68. Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s Table Talk, p. 7, 11–12 July 1941; on Kerrl see Scholder, ‘Die evangelische Kirche’, pp. 26–8.

69. Douglas, God Among the Germans, p. 26.

70. Buchheim, Glaubenskrise im Dritten Reich, p. 16.

71. Bendiscioli, New Racial Paganism, pp. 3, 32.

72. Douglas, God Among the Germans, p. 21.

73. Scholder, Requiem for Hitler, pp. 110–11.

74. Bendiscioli, New Racial Paganism, pp. 67–85; Scholder, Requiem for Hitler, p. 112; Matheson, Third Reich and the Christian Churches, pp. 67–71, ‘With Burning Concern’, 14 March 1937. There was no room, the encyclical ran, ‘for an ersatz or substitute religion based on arbitrary revelations, which some contemporary advocates wish to derive from the so-called myth of blood and race’.

75. J. Conway The Nazi Persecution of the Churches (London, 1968), pp. 298–9. The fi gure is an estimate only. The exact number is not known.

76. Scholder, ‘Die evangelische Kirche’, pp. 23–4.

77. Barnett, Soul of the People, pp. 43–4.

78. Scholder, Requiem for Hitler, pp. 163–6.

79. Barnett, Soul of the People, pp. 87, 93.

80. F. Reck-Malleczewen Diary of a Man in Despair (London, 1995), p. 22.

81. Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s Table Talk, p. 6, 11–12 July 1941; p. 343, 27 February 1942.

82. S. A. Golunskii and M. S. Strogovich ‘The Theory of the State and the Law’, in J. Hazard (ed.) Soviet Legal Philosophy (Cambridge, Mass., 1951), pp. 366–77; D. Hoffmann Stalinist Values: the Cultural Norms of Soviet Modernity 1917–1941 (Ithaca, NY, 2003), pp. 58–9.

83. Guins, Soviet Law and Soviet Society, p. 27.

84. M. Stolleis Public Law in Germany 1880–1914 (Oxford, 2001), pp. 422–3, 430–31; I. Müller Hitler’s Justice: The Courts of the Third Reich (London, 1991), p. 71.

85. Fraenkel, Dual State, p. 109. See too J. W. Bendersky Carl Schmitt: Theorist for the Reich (Princeton, NJ, 1983), pp. 35, 87;

B. Rüthers Carl Schmitt in Dritten Reich. Wissenschaft als Zeitgeist-Verstärkung (Munich, 1989), pp. 41–4.

86. J. W. Jones The Nazi Concept of Law (Oxford, 1939), p. 19.

87. R. Conquest (ed.) Justice and the Legal System in the USSR (London, 1968), p. 13; J. Hazard, I. Shapiro and P. B. Maggs (eds) The Soviet Legal System (New York, 1969), pp. 5–6; P. Beirne and R. Sharlet ‘Toward a General Theory of Law and Marxism: E. B. Pashukanis’, in P. Beirne (ed.) Revolution in Law: Contributions to the Development of Soviet Legal Theory, 1917–1938 (New York, 1990), pp. 23–4.

88. Conquest, Justice and the Legal System, p. 13; R. Sharlet, P. B. Maggs and P. Beirne ‘P. I. Stuchka and Soviet Law’, in Beirne, Revolution in Law, pp. 49–50. See too J. Burbank ‘Lenin and the Law in Revolutionary Russia’, Slavic Review, 54 (1995), pp. 23–44.

89. Beirne and Sharlet, ‘Toward a General Theory’, p. 36.

90. P. H. Solomon Soviet Criminal Justice Under Stalin (Cambridge, 1996), pp. 20–24, 34–8. By 1928 100 per cent of procurators were party members, and 85 per cent of judges in people’s courts.

91. Hazard et aL, Soviet Legal System, p. 6.

92. D. Pfaff Die Entwicklung der sowjetischen Rechtslehre (Cologne, 1968), pp. 115–21; Beirne and Sharlet, Toward a General Theory’, pp. 34, 39.

93. Guins, Soviet Law and Soviet Society, p. 31.

94. R. Sharlet and P. Beirne ‘In Search of Vyshinsky: the Paradox of Law and Terror’, in Beirne, Revolution in Law, pp. 150–51; Guins, Soviet Law and Soviet Society, pp. 30–31.

95. Sharlet and Beirne, ‘In Search of Vyshinsky’, pp. 138–40.

96. Pfaff, sowjetischen Rechtslehre, p. 115.

97. Pfaff, sowjetischen Rechtslehre, p. 118; see too I. P. Trainin The Relationship between State and Law’, 1945 in Hazard, Soviet Legal Philosophy, pp. 444–5, 446–8.

98. Z. L. Zile (ed.) Ideas and Forces in Soviet Legal History: a Reader on the Soviet State and the Law (Oxford, 1992), p. 277; E. Huskey ‘Vyshinsky, Krylenko, and Soviet Penal Policies in the 1930s’, in Beirne, Revolution in Law, pp. 184–6; P. H. Solomon The Bureaucratization of Criminal Justice under Stalin’, in P. H. Solomon (ed.) Reforming Justice in Russia, 1864–1996 (New York, 1997), pp. 229–32.

99. Bender sky, Carl Schmitt, p. 35.

100. Koenen Der Fall Carl Schmitt, p. 609; H. Müller-Dietz Recht im Nationalsozialismus (Baden-Baden, 2000), p. 5; G. Yieberg Justiz in nationalsozialistischen Deutschland (Bundesministerium der Justiz, Cologne, 1984), pp. 28–9.

101. Rüthers, Carl Schmitt im Dritten Reich, p. 60.

102. Müller, Hitlers Justice, p. 76.

103. Roberts, House that Hitler Built, p. 285; Müller, Hitler’s Justice, p. 72; D. Majer Grundlagen des nationalsozialistischen Rechtssystems (Stuttgart, 1987), p. 104; Koenen, Der Fall Carl Schmitt, p. 608.

104. On Schmitt see Bendersky, Carl Schmitt, pp. 38–9, 87–8; R. Cristi Carl Schmitt and authoritarian liberalism (Cardiff, 1998), pp. 5–15. Fora general biography D. Blasius Carl Schmitt: Freussischer Staatsrat im Hitlers Reich (Göttingen, 2001).

105. Rüthers, Carl Schmitt im Dritten Reich, p. 53.

106. Koenen, Der Fall Carl Schmitt, p. 608; Müller, Hitler’s Justice, p. 71.

107. Rüthers, Carl Schmitt im Dritten Reich, pp. 59–66; Cristi, Carl Schmitt, pp. 12–15.

108. Rüthers, Carl Schmitt im Dritten Reich, pp. 53–5; Koenen, Der Fall Carl Schmitt, p. 601.

109. E. Rabofsky and G. Oberkofl er Verborgene Wurzeln der NS-Justiz: Strafrechtliche Rüstung für zwei Weltkriegen (Vienna,

1985), p. 97.

110. Müller, Hitler’s Justice, pp. 68–9; Rabofsky and Oberkofl er, Verborgene Wurzeln, pp. 83–4.

111. Müller, Hitler’s Justice, pp. 60–65.

112. Majer, Grundlagen des nationalsozialistischen Rechtssystems, p. 103.

113. Majer, Grundlagen des nationalsozialistischen Rechtssystems, pp. 101–2; Fraenkel, Dual State, pp. 40, 107–12.

114. Majer, Grundlagen des nationalsozialistischen Rechtssystems, p. 103.

115. Roberts, House that Hitler Built, p. 286.

116. Koenen, Der Fall Carl Schmitt, p. 612. The attribution was made by Göring in July 1934.

117. Hazard, Soviet Legal Philosophy, p. 370.

118. Fieberg, Justiz im ns Deutschland, p. 28.

119. Conquest, Justice and the Legal System, p. 17.

120. Majer, Grundlagen des nationalsozialistischen Rechtssystems, p. 104.

121. Rabofsky and Oberkofl er, Verborgene Wurzeln, pp. 96–7; Müller, Hitler’s Justice, pp. 76–7.

122. Zile, Ideas and Forces, pp. 265–6, decree ‘On Protecting and Strengthening Public (Socialist) Property’, 7 August 1932.

123. Zile, Ideas and Forces, pp. 297–8, decree ‘On Supplementing the Statute on Crimes Against the State… with Articles Covering Treason’.

124. Hazard et al., Soviet Legal System, pp. 5–6; E. Ginzburg Into the Whirlwind (London, 1967), p. 131.

125. Rabofsky and Oberkofl er, Verborgene Wurzeln, pp. 85–6; Müller, Hitler’s Justice, p. 74.

126. Pfaff, sowjetischen Rechtslehre, p. 117.

127. Royal Institute of International Affairs Nationalism (London, 1939), p. 72.

128. Wetter, Dialectical Materialism, p. 176.

129. Guins, Soviet Law and Soviet Society, p. 32.

130. Scholder, Requiem for Hitler, pp. 47–8.

131. Kolnai, War Against the West, pp. 55–6.

132. Bendersky, Carl Schmitt, pp. 38–9; Müller, Hitler’s Justice, p. 72.

133. Kolnai, War Against the West, p. 289.

134. G. Neesse Die Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (Stuttgart, 1935), p. 10.

135. Majer, Grundlagen des nationalsozialistischen Rechtssystems, p. 103.

136. Wetter, Dialectical Materialism, p. 268.

137. Douglas, God among the Germans, p. 25.

138. V. Kravchenko I Chose Freedom: The Personal and Political Life of a Soviet Offi cial (London, 1947), p. 275.

139. de George, Soviet Ethics and Morality, p. 83.

140. Guins, Soviet Law and Soviet Society, p. 30.

141. Kolnai, War Against the West, pp. 291, 293–4; on the ideal of hardness see J. Hoberman ‘Primacy of Performance: Superman not Superathlete’, in J. A. Mangan (ed.) Shaping the Superman: Fascist Body as Political Icon – Aryan Fascism (London, 1999), pp. 78–9.

142. Imperial War Museum, London, FO 645, Box 157, testimony of Rudolf Höss taken at Nuremberg, 5 April 1946, p. 11.

143. Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s Table Talk, p. 304; Pfaff, sowjetischen Rechtslehre, p. 111.

 

Глава 8

1. Uncensored Germany: Letters and News Sent Secretly from Germany to the German Freedom Party (London, 1940), pp. 71–3, letter from a teacher, 14 August 1939.

2. Uncensored Germany, pp. 69–73. See too B. Engelmann In Hitler’s Germany: Everyday Life in the Third Reich (London, 1988), p. 38. Engelmann estimated that between 10 and 18 per cent of his classmates at school were ‘real Nazis’.

3. See for example R. Gellately Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany (Oxford, 2001); N. Frei ‘People’s Community and War: Hitler’s Popular Suppott’, in H. Mommsen (ed.) The Third Reich between Vision and Reality: New Perspectives on German History 1918–1945 (Oxford, 2001), pp. 59–74; D. Hoffmann Stalinist Values: the Cultural Norms of Soviet Modernity 1917–1941 (Ithaca, NY, 2003).

4. G. M. Ivanova Labor Camp Socialism: the Gulag in the Soviet Totalitarian System (New York, 2000), p. 51: a farmworker was found to have 850 grammes of rye concealed, and was sentenced by the Belgorod District Court to fi ve years in a camp in 1947. H. James ‘The Deutsche Bank and the Dictatorship 1933–1945’, in L. Gall et aL The Deutsche Bank, 1870–1945 (London, 1995), p. 350. The bank director Hermann Kohler was executed for saying that National Socialism was ‘nothing more than a fart’.

5. See I. Kershaw The ‘Hitler Myth’: Image and Reality in the Third Reich (Oxford, 1987), pp. 83–104; I. Kershaw ‘The Führer-Image and Political Integration: the Popular Conception of Hitler in Bavaria during the Third Reich’, in G. Hirschfeld and L. Kettenacker (eds) Der ‘Führerstaat’: Mythos and Realität (Stuttgart, 1981), pp. 133–60.

6. Engelmann, In Hitler’s Germany, p. vii.

7. A. Solzhenitsyn The Gulag Archipelago 1918–1956 (London, 1974), pp. 18–20.

8. See for example the political police reports in J. Schadt (ed.) Verfolgung und Widerstand unter dem Nationalsozialismus in Baden. Die Lageberichte der Gestapo und des Generalstaatsanwalts Karslruhe 1933–1940 (Stuttgart, 1976). These reports were structured to report any manifestations of hostility or non-compliance, but not evidence of complicity or enthusiasm.

9. J.-P. Depretto ‘L’opinion ouvriere (1928–1932)’, Revue des Etudes Slaves, 66 (1994), pp. 59.

10. For example Schadt, Verfolgung und Widerstand in Baden, p. 107, ‘Stand und Tätigkeit der staatsfeindlichen Betätigungen’, 4 October 1934.

11. D. Schmiechen-Ackermann Nationalsozialismus und Arbeitermilieus: Der nationalsozialistische Angriff auf die proletarischen Wohnquartiere und die Reaktion in den sozialistischen Vereinen (Bonn, 1998), p. 756.

12. L. Siegelbaum ‘Soviet Norms Determination in Theory and Practice 1917–1941’, Soviet Studies, 36 (1984), pp. 46–8; on worker legal protection in the 1920s see M. Ilic Women Workers in the Soviet Inter-War Economy: From ‘Protection’ to ‘Equality’ (London, 1999), pp. 46–52.

13. J.-P. Depretto Les Ouvriers en U.R.S.S. 1918–1941 (Paris, 1997), pp. 276–7; T. Szamuely ‘The Elimination of Opposition between the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Congresses of the CPSU’, Soviet Studies, 17 (1966), pp. 335–6; A. Graziosi A New, Peculiar State: Explorations in Soviet History 1917–1937 (Westport, Conn., 2000), pp. 179–83; J. B. Sorensen The Life and Death of Soviet Trade Unionism 1917–1918 (New York, 1969), pp. 245–53.

14. Graziosi, New, Peculiar State, pp. 190–91.

15. Graziosi, New, Peculiar State, pp. 192–4; D. Filtzer ‘Stalinism and the “Working Class in the 1930s’, in J. Channon (ed.) Politics, Society and Stalinism in the USSR (London, 1998), pp. 172–8; Szamuely, ‘Elimination of Opposition’, pp. 336–7; D. Filtzer Soviet Workers and Stalinist Industrialization: the Formation of Modern Soviet Production Relations 1918–1941 (London, 1986), pp. 107–15, 135–46.

16. V. Kravchenko I Chose Freedom: The Personal and Political Life of a Soviet Offi cial (London, 1947), pp. 311–15; L. E. Hubbard Soviet Labour and Industry (London, 1942), pp. 96–7.

17. J. Harrer ‘Gewerkschaftlicher Widerstand gegen das “Dritte Reich”’, in F. Deppe, G. Fülberth and J. Harrer (eds) Geschichte der deutschen Werkschaftsbewegung (4th edn, Cologne, 1989), pp. 349–56; S. Mielke and M. Frese (eds) Die Gewerkschaften im Widerstand und in der Emigration 1933–1945 (Frankfurt am Main, 1999), pp. 13–17; G. Mai’ “Warum steht der deutsche Arbeiter zu Hitler?” Zur Rolle der Deutschen Arbeitsfront im Herrschaftssystem des Dritten Reiches’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 13 (1987), pp. 215–17.

18. C. W. Guillebaud The Economic Recovery of Germany, 1933–1938 (London, 1939), pp. 110–11.

19. Harrer, ‘Gewerkschaftlicher Widerstand’, p. 344.

20. Harrer, ‘Gewerkschaftlicher Widerstand’, pp. 346–9; Mielcke and Frese, Gewerkschaften in Widerstand, pp. 13–16.

21. Harrer, ‘Gewerkschaftlicher Widerstand’, pp. 372–7; G. Beier Die illegale Reichsleitung der Gewerkschaften 1933–1945 (Cologne, 1981), pp. 41–3, 73.

22. A. Merson Communist Resistance in Nazi Germany (London, 1985), p. 182. The fi gure of 60,000 includes all those estimated to have been active after 1933. In January 1933 the party had 360,000 members.

23. Schadt, Verfolgung und Widerstand in Baden, pp. 106–9, ‘Lagebericht des Gestapa Karlsruhe’, 4 October 1934.

24. G. Plum ‘Die KPD in der Illegalität’, in H. Graml (ed.) Widerstand im Dritten Reich: Probleme, Ereignisse, Gestalten (Frankfurt am Main, 1994), pp. 167–70.

25. Harrer, ‘Gewerkschaftlicher Widerstand’, p. 369; K. H. Roth Facetten des Terrors: Der Geheimdienst der “Deutsche Arbeitsfront’ und die Zerstörung der Arbeiterbewegung 1933 bis 1938 (Bremen, 2000), pp. 36–8.

26. Roth, Facetten des Terrors, pp. 9–21; Harrer, ‘Gewerkschaftlicher Widerstand’, p. 370; G. Lotfi KZ der Gestapo: Arbeitserziehungslager im Dritten Reich (Stuttgart, 2000), pp. 25–42, 114–21.

27. Depretto, ‘L’opinion ouvriere’, pp. 53–8; E. Osokina Our Daily Bread: Socialist Distribution and the Art of Survival in Stalin’s Russia (New York, 2001), pp. 53–6.

28. Filtzer, ‘Stalinism and the Working Class’, pp. 168–9.

29. J. J. Rossman ‘The Teikovo Cotton Workers’ Strike of April 1932: Class, Gender and Identity Politics in Stalin’s Russia’, Russian Review, 56 (1997), p. 44.

30. Rossman, ‘Teikovo Cotton Workers’ Strike’, pp. 46–63; see too J. J. Rossman ‘A Workers’ Strike in Stalin’s Russia: the Vichuga Uprising of April 1932’, in L. Viola (ed.) Contending with Stalinism: Soviet Power and Popular Resistance in the 1930s (Ithaca, NY, 2002), pp. 44–80. This strike, too, was defeated by police repression, though it brought some economic alleviation.

31. See J. Falter and M. H. Kater ‘Wähler und Mitglieder der NSDAP’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 19 (1993), pp. 155–77.

32. Mielke and Frese, Gewerkschaften im Widerstand, pp. 13–15.

33. On the fate of the other socialist parties see V. N. Brovkin The Mensheviks after October: Socialist Opposition and the Rise of the Bolshevik Dictatorship (Ithaca, NY, 1987); V. N. Brovkin (ed.) The Bolsheviks in Russian Society: the Revolution and the Civil Wars (New Haven, Conn., 1997), esp. chs 2, 4 and 7; A. Liebich ‘The Mensheviks’, in A. Geifman (ed.) Russia under the Last Tsar: Opposition and Subversion 1894–1917 (Oxford, 1999), pp. 19–33.

34. R. Löhmann Der Stalinmythos: Studien zur Sozialgeschichte des Personenkultes in der Sowjetunion (Münster, 1990), p. 205; Depretto, Les Ouvriers en U.R.S.S., p. 367.

35. Löhmann, Stalinmythos, pp. 206–15; V. Andrle Workers in Stalin’s Russia: Industrialization and Social Change in a Planned Economy (New York, 1988), p. 35; Ilič, Women Workers, p. 185; Filtzer, Soviet Workers, pp. 57–65.

36. K. M. Strauss Factory and Community in Stalin’s Russia: the Making of an Industrial Working Class (Pittsburgh, 1997), pp. 23–4, 268–81.

37. H. Potthoff Freie Gewerkschaften 1918–1933: Der Allgemeine Deutsche Gewerkschaftsbund in der Weimarer Republik (Düsseldorf, 1987), p. 346.

38. W. Benz ‘Vom freiwilligen Arbeitsdienst zur Arbeitsdienstpfl icht’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 16 (1968), pp. 317–46;

D. P. Silverman Hitler’s Economy: Nazi Work Creation Programs, 1933–1936 (Cambridge, Mass., 1998), p. 168–72, 195–8.

39. Schmiechen-Ackermann, Nationalsozialismus und Arbeitermilieus, pp. 432–4, 487–90, 674–84; M. Schneider Unterm Hakenkreuz: Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung 1933 bis 1939 (Bonn, 1999), pp. 347–411, 736–51.

40. Strauss, Factory and Community, pp. 272–4; L. Siegelbaum Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR, 1935–1941 (Cambridge, 1988) pp. 146–8, 163–8, 179–90. By the late 1930s there were 3 million workers classifi ed as Stakhanovites, but mobility into and out of the category was high.

41. Strauss, Factory and Community, p. 195.

42. Filtzer, ‘Stalinism and the Working Class’, pp. 172–4.

43. Siegelbaum, ‘Soviet Norms Determination’, pp. 53–6; on the breakdown of collectives L. Siegelbaum ‘Production Collectives and Communes and the “Imperatives” of Soviet Industrialization’, Slavic Review, 45 (1986), pp. 67, 73–81.

44. M. Lewin The Making of the Soviet System: Essays in the Social History of Interwar Russia (London, 1985), p. 250.

45. R. Smelser ‘Die Sozialplanung der Deutschen Arbeitsfront’, in M. Prinz and R. Zitelmann (eds) Nationalsozialismus und Modernisierung (Darmstadt, 1991) pp. 75–77; Mai, ‘“Warum steht der deutsche Arbeiter zu Hitler?”’, pp. 220–26; U. Herbert ‘Arbeiterschaft im “Dritten Reich”: Zwischenbilanz und offene Fragen’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 15 (1989), pp. 323–31. See too R. Hachtmann Industriearbeit im ‘Dritten Reich’’ (Göttingen, 1989), pp. 54–66; J. Gillingham The “Deproletarianization” of German Society: Vocational Training in the Third Reich’, Journal of Social History, 19 (1985/6), pp. 423–32.

46. Smelser, ‘Sozialplanung der Deutschen Arbeitsfront’, p. 75.

47. See for example U. Hess ‘Zum Widerstand gegen den Nationalsozialismus in Leipziger Betrieben 1933–1939. Bedingungen, Möglichkeiten, Grenzen’, in H.-D. Schmid (ed.) Zwei Städte unter dem Hakenkreuz: Widerstand und Verweigerung in Hannover und Leipzig 1933–1945 (Leipzig, 1994), pp. 148–51.

48. Bundesarchiv-BerJin, R3101/11921, Reich Economics Ministry, weekly report, 18 December 1944. Some of the women would also be foreign workers. See also A. Tröger ‘Die Planung des Rationalisierungsproletariats: Zur Entwicklung der geschlechtsspezifi schen Arbeitsteilung und das weibliche Arbeitsmarkt im Nationalsozialismus’, in A. Kuhn and J. Rüsen (eds) Frauen in der Geschichte (Düsseldorf, 1982), pp. 245–313.

49. Strauss, Factory and Community, pp. 224–30; Ilič, Women Workers, pp. 96–103; on canteen food, P. Francis I Worked in a Soviet Factory (London, 1939), pp. 80–82.

50. Andrle, Workers in Stalin’s Russia, pp. 46–9; Hubbard, Soviet Labour and Industry, pp. 192, 211–14.

51. M. Klürer Von Klassenkampf zur Volksgemeinschaft: Sozialpolitik im Dritten Reich (Leoni, 1988), pp. 167–9; Herbert,

‘Arbeiterschaftim “Dritten Reich”’, p. 137. On the social spending of German businesses see H. Pohl, S. Habeth and B. Briininghaus Die Daimler-Benz AG in den Jahren 1933 bis 1945 (Stuttgart, 1986), pp. 172–80.

52. Smelser, ‘Sozialplanung der Deutschen Arbeitsfront’, pp. 78–9; Herbert, ‘Arbeiterschaft im “Dritten Reich”’, p. 342; Mai,’ “Warum steht der deutsche Arbeiter zu Hitler?”’, pp. 226–8.

53. Schmiechen-Ackermann, Nationalsozialismus und Arbeitermilieus, p. 642.

54. Filtzer, ‘Stalinism and the Working Class’, pp. 177–8; Siegelbaum, ‘Soviet Norms Determination’, pp. 57–8; Hubbard, Soviet Labour and Industry, pp. 105–9.

55. BA-Berlin, R2501/65, Reichsbank report, ‘Steigende Arbeiterlöhne’, 19 June 1939, pp. 2–7.

56. Mai, ‘“Warum steht der deutsche Arbeiter zu Hitler?’”, pp. 216–20, 228; W. Zollitsch ‘Die Vertrauensratswahlen von 1934 und 1935’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 15 (1989), pp. 363–4, 378–9.

57. Mai, ‘“Warum steht der deutsche Arbeiter zu Hitler?”’, p. 222. See too G. Mai ‘Die nationalsozialistische Betriebszellen-Organisation: Arbeiterschaft und Nationalsozialismus 1927–1934’, in D. Heiden and G. Mai (eds) Nationalsozialismus in Thüringen (“Weimar, 1995), p. 165.

58. F. Carsten The German Workers and the Nazis (Aldershot, 1995), pp. 44, 46.

59. Carsten, German Workers, p. 37.

60. J. Falter ‘Warum die deutsche Arbeiter während des “Dritten Reiches” zu Hitler standen’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 13 (1987), pp. 217–31. Hess, ‘Zum Widerstand gegen den Nationalsozialismus’, p. 149, who notes that in Leipzig factories threequarters of party cell members were wage-earners.

61. A. Geifmann Thou Shalt Kill: Revolutionary Terrorism in Russia, 1894–1917 (Princeton, NJ, 1993).

62. I. Zbarsky and S. Hutchinson Lenin’s Embalmers (London, 1998), p. 93.

63. D. Volkogonov Trotsky: the Eternal Revolutionary (London, 1996), pp. 377–8.

64. A. V. Baikaloff J Knew Stalin (London, 1940), pp. 78–9.

65. See for example T. J. Colton Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), pp. 323–4.

66. Volkogonov, Trotsky, pp. 379, 392; V. Serge Memoirs of a Revolutionary 1901–1941 (Oxford, 1967), p. 344.

67. R. J. Overy Interrogations: the Nazi Elite in Allied Hands, 1945 (London, 2001), pp. 132–4, 460–67.

68. R. W. Whalen Assassinating Hitler: Ethics and Resistance in Nazi Germany (Toronto, 1993), pp. 36–7.

69. J. P. Duffy and V. L. Ricci Target Hitler: the Plots to Kill Adolf Hitler (Westport, Conn., 1992), pp. 26–8; W. Berthold Die 42 Attentate auf Adolf Hitler (Wiesbaden, 2000), pp. 126–45.

70. Berthold, 42 Attentate, pp. 102–13; Duffy and Ricci, Target Hitler, pp. 19–21.

71. F. von Schlabrendorff The Secret War Against Hitler (London, 1966), pp. 229–40, 276–92; M. Baigent and R. Leigh Secret Germany: Claus von Stauffenberg and the Mystical Crusade against Hitler (London, 1994), pp. 46–58; Berthold, 42 Attentate, pp. 214–36.

72. Carsten, German Workers, pp. 17–19.

73. Carsten, German Workers, pp. 105–6; H. Mehringer ‘Sozialdemokratischer und sozialistischer Widerstand’, in P. Steinbach and

J. Tuchel (eds) Widerstand und Nationalsozialismus (Berlin, 1994), pp. 126–36.

74. Merson, Communist Resistance, pp. 85–7, 162–3; Carsten, German Workers, pp. 70–71; on problems of communist resistance see Hess ‘Zum Widerstand gegen den Nationalsozialismus’, pp. 148–9, 152; Plum, ‘KPD in der Illegalität’, pp. 157–70.

75. Merson, Communist Resistance, pp. 160–63; Carsten, German Workers, pp. 110–11.

76. T. Hamerow On the Road to The Wolf’s Lair: German Resistance to Hitler (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), pp. 9–11. See too

M. Meyer-Krahmer Carl Goerdeler und sein Weg in den Widerstand (Freiburg im Braisgau, 1989).

77. Hamerow, Road to the Wolf’s Lair, pp. 13–14.

78. A. Speer Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs (London, 1970), pp. 379–81, 392; H. Schacht 76 Jahre meines Lebens (Bad Wörishofen, 1953), pp. 533–7.

79. Hamerow, Road to the Wolf’s Lair, pp. 320–21.

80. Hamerow, Road to the Wolf’s Lair, p. 334.

81. K. vonKlemperer German Resistance Against Hitler: the Search for Allies Abroad (Oxford, 1992), pp. 432–3.

82. B. Scheurig Verräter oder Patrioten. Das Nationalkomitee ‘Freies Deutschland’ und der Bund deutscher Offi ziere in der Sowjetunion 1943–1945 (Berlin, 1993), p. 138.

83. J.P. Stern The White Rose’, in Die Weisse Rose. Student Resistance to National Socialism 1942–1943: Forschungsergebnisse und Erfarhrungsberichte (Nottingham, 1991), pp. 11–31.

84. Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary, p. 275.

85. S. Davies Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia: Terror, Propaganda and Dissent, 1934–1941 (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 122–3. See too B. Starkov Trotsky and Ryutin: from the history of the anti-Stalin resistance in the 1930s’, in T. Brotherstone and P. Dukes (eds) The Trotsky Reappraisal (Edinburgh, 1992), pp. 73, 77–6.

86. R. Gaucher Opposition in the U.S.S.R. 1917–1967 (New York, 1969), pp. 123–7.

87. G. Fischer Soviet Opposition to Stalin: a Case Study in World War II (Cambridge, Mass., 1952), p. 146.

88. J. J. Stephan The Russian Fascists: Tragedy and Farce in Exile, 1925–1945 (London, 1978), pp. 49–51, 55–8.

89. Stephan, Russian Fascists, pp. 159–66, 168–9.

90. Stephan, Russian Fascists, pp. 338–40, 351–4, 357–64.

91. Volkogonov, Trotsky, pp. 320–22.

92. Volkogonov, Trotsky, pp. 328–9, 337–9, 401–6; on the infl uence of Trotsky see Starkov, Trotsky and Ryutin1, pp. 74, 78–9. See too A. Durgan Trotsky, the POUM and the Spanish Revolution’, Journal of Trotsky Studies, 2 (1994), pp. 56–7, 64–5; on Trotsky’s view of terrorism G. L. Kline The Defence of Terrorism: Trotsky and his major critics’, in Brotherstone and Dukes, The Trotsky Reappraisal, pp. 156–63.

93. Gaucher, Opposition in the U.S.S.R., pp. 273–80; V. Rogovin 1937: Stalin’s Year of Terror (Oak Park, Mich., 1998), pp. 328–44.

94. Volkogonov, Trotsky, pp. 463–6; Durgan, ‘Trotsky and the POUM’, p. 43 on Mercader. On Trotsky’s view of terrorism see Kline, The Defence of Terrorism’.

95. Fischer, Soviet Opposition, pp. 42–3.

96. Gaucher, Opposition in the U.S.S.R., p. 321; C. Andreyev Vlasov and the Russian Liberation Movement: Soviet Reality and Emigre Theories (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 2–4.

97. Andreyev, Vlasov, pp. 206–8; M. Parrish The Lesser Terror: Soviet State Security 1939–1953 (Westport, Conn., 1996), pp. 151–3.

98. Andreyev, Vlasov, pp. 210–14.

99. J. Hoffmann Die Geschichte der Wlassow-Armee (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1984), pp. 205–6.

100. Parrish, Lesser Terror, pp. 148–50.

101. R. W. Thurston ‘Social Dimensions of Stalinist Rule: Humor and Terror in the USSR, 1935–1941’, Journal of Social History, 24 (1990/91), p. 541.

102. Fischer, Soviet Opposition, pp. 115–16.

103. J. Fürst ‘Re-Examining Opposition under Stalin: Evidence and Context – A Reply to Kuromiya’, Europe – Asia Studies, 55 (2003), pp. 795–9.

104. D. Peukert Inside Nazi Germany: Conformity, Opposition and Racism in Everyday Life (London, 1987), pp. 154–9.

105. Peukert, Inside Nazi Germany, p. 161.

106. Thurston, ‘Social Dimensions’, p. 553.

107. Pravda, 12 June 1937.

108. L. Siegelbaum and L. Sokolov (eds) Stalinism as a Way of Life (New Haven, Conn., 2000), p. 239.

109. Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia, p. 135.

110. Siegelbaum and Sokolov, Stalinism as a Way of Life, p. 176.

111. Siegelbaum and Sokolov, Stalinism as a Way of Life, p. 241.

112. Schadt, Verfolgung und Widerstand, p. 117.

113. D. Kahn Hitler’s Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II (London, 1978), pp. 181–2.

114. Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia, pp. 52, 177.

115. Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia, p. 177.

116. S. Graham Stalin: An Impartial Study of the Life and Work of Joseph Stalin (London, 1931), pp. 78–9; see too Thurston, ‘Social Dimensions’, pp. 544–7.

117. V. A. Nevezhin ‘The Pact with Germany and the Idea of an “Offensive War” (1939–1941)’, Journal of Slavic Military Stduies, 8 (1995), pp. 813–15.

118. I. Kershaw Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third Reich; Bavaria, 1933–1945 (Oxford, 1983), pp. 334–57.

119. H. Boberach (ed.) Meldungen aus dem Reich: Auswahl aus den geheimen Lageberichten der Sicherheitsdienst der SS, 1939–1945 (Berlin, 1965).

120. E. Radzinsky Stalin (London, 1996), p. 429.

 

Глава 9

1. B. Brecht Poems 1913–1956 (London, 1976), p. 294.

2. S. Reid ‘Socialist Realism in the Stalinist Terror: the Industry of Socialism Art Exhibition, 1935–41’, Russian Review, 60 (2001), pp. 153–6.

3. S. Barron (ed.) ‘Degenerate Art’: the Fate of the Avant-Garde in Nazi Germany (New York, 1991), p. 17; P. Adam Arts of the Third Reich (London, 1992), pp. 36–7.

4. Reid, ‘Socialist Realism’, pp. 161–4.

5. Reid, ‘Socialist Realism’, pp. 169–72.

6. Reid, ‘Socialist Realism’, pp. 169, 173–4, 179.

7. Barron, ‘Degenerate Art’, p. 17; F. Spotts Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics (London, 2002), pp. 171–2; Adam, Arts of the Third Reich, p. 94.

8. Spotts, Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics, pp. 171, 176; Barron, ‘Degenerate Art’, p. 18; R. S. Wistrich Weekend in Munich: Art, Propaganda and Terror in the Third Reich (London, 1995), pp. 80, 82–3.

9. Reid, ‘Socialist Realism’, pp. 182–3.

10. Spotts, Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics, p. 172.

11. Adam, Arts of the Third Reich, p. 114; Spotts, Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics, p. 169; Reid, ‘Socialist Realism’, p. 168.

12. H. Ermolaev Soviet Literary Theories 1917–1934: the Genesis of Socialist Realism (New York, 1977), pp. 144, 147; K. Clark The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual (Bloomington, Ind., 2000), pp. 27–31.

13. Ermolaev, Soviet Literary Theories, p. 145; T. Yedlin Maxim Gorky: a Political Biography (Westport, Conn., 1999), pp. 198–9.

14. Ermolaev, Soviet Literary Theories, pp. 166–7.

15. S. Fitzpatrick The Cultural Front: Power and Culture in Revolutionary Russia (Ithaca, NY, 1992), pp. 187–8; Pravda, 28 January 1936. Attacks on Shostakovich were followed by an article in Pravda on 6 February 1936 on modern ballet (‘ballet’s trickery’) and, in the issue for 20 February, on modern building, ‘cacophony in architecture’.

16. I. Golomstock Totalitarian Art (London, 1990), p. 174.

17. R. Hingley Russian Writers and Society 1917–1978 (London, 1979), pp. 198–200.

18. Golomstock, Totalitarian Art, p. 179.

19. S. Tregub The Heroic Life of Nikolai Ostrovsky (Moscow, 1964), pp. 4, 38, 47.

20. W. N. Vickery ‘Zhdanovism (1946–1953)’, in M. Hayward and L. Labedz (eds) Literature and Revolution in Soviet Russia 1917–1962 (Oxford, 1963), p. 110.

21. E. J. Brown The Proletarian Episode in Russian Literature 1928–1932 (New York, 1953), p. 88.

22. Golomstock, Totalitarian Art, p. 86; Ermolaev, Soviet Literary Theories, p. 197.

23. M. Meyer ‘A Musical Facade for the Third Reich’, in Barron ‘Degenerate Art’, p. 174; Golomstock, Totalitarian Art, p. 169.

24. Golomstock, Totalitarian Art, pp. 184–5.

25. Barron, ‘Degenerate Art’, p. 46; Golomstock, Totalitarian Art, p. 83; D. Welch ‘Nazi Film Policy: Control, Ideology, and

Propaganda’, in G. R. Cuomo (ed.) National Socialist Cultural Policy (London, 1995), p. 98.

26. Adam, Arts of the Third Reich, p. 94.

27. E. Bahr ‘Nazi Cultural Politics: Intentionalism vs. Functionalism’, in Cuomo, National Socialist Cultural Policy, p. 9.

28. A. Steinweis Art, Ideology, and Economics in Nazi Germany (Chapel Hill, NC, 1993), p. 22.

29. Golomstock, Totalitarian Art, pp. 81–3; L. Richard Le Nazisme et la Culture (Brussels, 1988), pp. 184–90.

30. Golomstock, Totalitarian Art, p. 83.

31. Spotts, Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics, p. 176; Golomstock, Totalitarian Art, pp. 150–51.

32. Yedlin, MaximGorky, p. 199;Golomstock, TotalitarianArt, pp. 183, 191.

33. Barron, ‘Degenerate Art’, p. 174.

34. A. Lawton (ed.) Russian Futurism through its Manifestoes, 1912–1928 (Ithaca, NY, 1988), p. 253.

35. A. Gladkov Meetings with Pasternak: a Memoir (London, 1977), p. 72.

36. L. Mally Culture of the Future: the Proletkult Movement in Revolutionary Russia (Berkeley, 1990), pp. 246–50, 253–5.

37. Lawton, Russian Futurism, p. 48.

38. V. Erlich Russian Formalism: History – Doctrine (3rd edn, New Haven, Conn., 1981), pp. 99–103, 118.

39. Brown, Proletarian Episode, p. 88.

40. Brown, Proletarian Episode, p. 89.

41. Ermolaev, Soviet Literary Theories, pp. 94–5.

42. Barron, ‘Modern Art and Polities’, p. 9; for a memoir of the exhibition see P. Guenther Three Days in Munich, July 1937’, in Barron, ‘Degenerate Art’, pp. 33–43.

43. W. Moritz ‘Film Censorship during the Nazi Era’, in Barron, ‘Degenerate Art’, p. 190; Meyer, ‘Musical Façade’, pp. 180–82.

44. O. Figes Natasha’s Dance: a Cultural History of Russia (London, 2002), pp. 476–7; P. Kenez Cinema and Soviet Society: From the Revolution to the Death of Stalin (London, 2001), pp. 94–5.

45. J. Garrard and C. Garrard Inside the Soviet Writers’ Union (London, 1990), pp. 31–2; Golomstock, Totalitarian Art, pp. 93–4.

46. Fitzpatrick, Cultural Front, pp. 197–8.

47. Vickery, ‘Zhadanovism’, pp. 101–5.

48. R. A. Brady The Spirit and Structure of German Fascism (London, 1937), pp. 90–91; Barron, ‘Modern Art and Polities’, p. 10; E. Fröhlich ‘Die kultur-politicische Pressekonferenz des Reichspropagandaministeriums’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 22 (1974), pp. 353–6; V. Dahm ‘Der Reichskulturkammer als Instrument Kulturpolitischer Stenerung und Sozialer Reglementierung’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 34 (1986) pp. 53–84; J. Petropoulos ‘A Guide through the Visual Arts Administration of the Third Reich’, in Cuomo, National Socialist Cultural Policy, pp. 121–52.

49. Brady, Spirit and Structure, p. 92.

50. S. Roberts The House that Hitler Built (London, 1937), p. 242; J. London (ed.) Theatre Under the Nazis (Manchester, 2000), pp. 8–9, 12.

51. Brady, Spirit and Structure, p. 88.

52. Steinweis, ‘Weimar Culture’, pp. 406–19.

53. Steinweis, Art;, Ideology, and Economics, pp. 4–6.

54. Golomstock, Totalitarian Art, pp. 220–22; Garrard and Garrard, Soviet Writers’Union, p. 24; Hingley, Russian Writers and Society, p. 207.

55. Steinweiss, Art, Ideology and Economics, pp. 74–9, 81–95.

56. J. W. Baird To Die for Germany: Heroes in the Nazi Pantheon (Bloom-ington, Ind., 1990), p. 145.

57. Baird, To Die for Germany, pp. 146–7.

58. Baird, To Die for Germany, p. 148.

59. E. J. Simmons ‘The Organization Writer (1934–46)’, in Hayward and Labedz, Literature and Revolution, pp. 84–5; Tregub, The Heroic Life of Nikolai Ostrovsky, pp. 7, 14, 38.

60. T. Lahusen How Life Writes the Book: Real Socialism and Socialist Realism in Stalin’s Russia (Ithaca, NY, 1997), pp. 13–15, 48–50, 53, 64–8, 79–80, 189–91.

61. R. Bartlett Wagner in Russia (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 227, 259–67, 271–2, 288–9.

62. Figes, Natasha’s Dance, pp. 480–81; Simmons, The Organization Writer’, p. 96; Fitzpatrick, Cultural Front, p. 207.

63. H. Ermolaev Censorship in Soviet Literature (Lanham, Md, 1997), p. 53.

64. Clark, The Soviet Novel, p. 4; M. Gorky Mother (Moscow, 1949). The introduction claimed: ‘though it was written ten years before the establishment of Soviet power in Russia, we count it the fi rst stone laid in the foundations of Soviet literature’ (p. 5).

65. Yedlin, Maxim Gorky, pp. 178, 180–83, 186, 192–3, 209 ff.

66. E. Levi Music in the Third Reich (London, 1994), pp. 178–82; P. McGilli-gan Fritz Lang: the Nature of the Beast (London, 1997), pp. 173, 174–6.

67. Levi, Music in the Third Reich, pp. 98–9, 192–3.

68. Meyer, ‘Musical Façade’, p. 175; on literary conventions see J. M. Ritchie German Literature under National Socialism (London, 1983), pp. 96–101; T. Alkemeyer and A. Pichantz ‘Insezenierte Körperträume: Reartikulation von Herrschaft und Selbstbeherrschung in Körperbildern des Faschismus’, in U. Hermann and U. Nassen (eds) Formative Ästhetik im Nationalsozialismus. Intentionen, Medien und Praxisformen totalitärer ästhetischer Herrschaft und Beherrschung (Weinheim, 1994), p. 88; R. Taylor Literature and Society in Germany 1918–1945 (Brighton, 1980), pp. 236–44.

69. Ermolaev, Censorship in Soviet Literature, pp. 1–6; G. V. Kostyrchenko ‘Soviet Censorship in 1945–52’, Voprosii istorii, 11–12 (1996), pp. 87–8.

70. Ermolaev, Censorship in Soviet Literature, pp. 7, 57; Kostyrchenko, ‘Soviet Censorship’, p. 92, gives the number of censors in the organization as 1,000; J. Plumper ‘Abolishing Ambiguity: Soviet Censorship Practices in the 1930s’, Russian Review, 60 (2001), pp. 527–8, 533.

71. Ermolaev, Censorship in Soviet Literature, p. 57; Kostyrchenko, ‘Soviet Censorship’, p. 92, gives the following fi gures for censorship work during the war: 235,031 newspaper editions checked; 207,942 Journal articles; 71,740 books; 158,998 brochures.

72. Plumper, ‘Abolishing Ambiguity’, pp. 530–31.

73. Plumper, ‘Abolishing Ambiguity’, pp. 535–7.

74. Plumper, ‘Abolishing Ambiguity’, p. 527.

75. Reid, ‘Socialist Realism’, p. 179.

76. Ermolaev, Censorship in Soviet Literature, pp. 43–5, 56; V. G. Lebedeva Totalitarian and Mass Elements in Soviet Culture of the 1930s’, Russian Studies in History, 42 (2003), pp. 81–4. On Fadayev see Vickery, ‘Zhdanov-ism’, pp. 114–15; R. Cockrell (ed.), introduction to A. Fadeev The Rout (London, 1995), pp. xi – xii.

77. Ermolaev, Censorship in Soviet Literature, p. 46.

78. H.-W. Strätz ‘Die studentische “Aktion wider den undeutschen Geist” im Frühjahr 1933’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 16 (1968), pp. 347–53; Brecht, Poems, pp. 294, 568; Richard, Nazisme et la Culture, p. 211; Ritchie, German Literature, p. 68–9. Strictly speaking there were two fi rst authors, Marx and the German socialist Karl Kautsky.

79. Roberts, House that Hitler Built, p. 248.

80. See for example G. Neesse Die NSDAP: Versuch einer Rechtsdeutung (Stuttgart, 1935), frontispiece.

81. Moritz, ‘Film Censorship’, p. 188; R. Taylor Film Propaganda – Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany (London, 1998), pp. 145–6.

82. D. Welch Propaganda and the German Cinema 1933–45 (London, 2001), p. 14.

83. K. B. Eaton (ed.) Enemies of the People: the Destruction of Soviet iterary, Theater, and Film Arts in the 1930s (Evanston, Ill., 2002), pp. xx – xxi.

84. E. Braun ‘Vsevolod Meyerhold: the Final Act’, in Eaton, Enemies, pp. 151–9.

85. J. Rubinstein Tangled Loyalties: the Life and Times of Ilya Ehrenburg (London, 1996), pp. 45, 49–50, 69, 176.

86. Ermolaev, Censorship in Soviet Literature, p. 50.

87. J. E. Curtis (ed.) Mikhail Bulgakov: Manuscripts Don’t Burn, A Life in Diaries and Letters (London, 1991), p. 284, letter from Bulgakov to V. Veresayev, 11 March 1939.

88. L. Milne Mikhail Bulgakov: a Critical Biography (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 259–60.

89. Milne, Bulgakov, pp. 220–25; Curtis, Manuscripts Don’t Burn, pp. 229–30.

90. Taylor, Literature and Society, p. 215.

91. Strätz, ‘“Aktion wider den undeutschen Geist”’, p. 350; Taylor, Literature and Societyp, p. 218. In general see A. E. Steinweis ‘Cultural Eugenics: Social Policy, Economic Reform, and the Purge of Jews from German Cultural Life’, in Cuomo, National Socialist Cultural Policy, pp. 23–37.

92. Levi, Music in the Third Reich, p. 48.

93. Levi, Music in the Third Reich, pp. 30–31; E. Levi ‘Music and National Socialism: The Politicisation of Criticism, Composition and Performance’, in B. Taylor and W. van der Will (eds) The Naziftcation of Art: Art, Music, Architecture and Film in the Third Reich (Winchester, 1990), pp. 162–4; B. Geissmar The Baton and the Jackboot: Recollections of Musical Life (London, 1988), p. 69.

94. G. BennBriefeanF. W. Oetze 1931–1945 (Wiesbaden, 1977), pp. 33–5, letter from Benn to Oetze, 25 April 1934.

95. G. Benn Briefe an Tilly Wedekind 1930–1955 (Stuttgart, 1986), pp. 267–8, letter from Benn to Tilly Wedekind, 11 January 1938.

96. Benn, Briefe an F. W. Oetze, pp. 186–7, President, Reich Chamber of Writers, to Benn, 18 March 1938; see too F. J. Raddatz Gottfried Benn: Leben – niederer Wahn: Eine Biographie (Munich, 2001), pp. 168–73.

97. Taylor, Literature and Society, pp. 271–3.

98. D. L. Burgin ‘Sophia Parnok and Soviet-Russian Censorship, 1922–1933’, in Eaton (ed.), Enemies, pp. 44–5; Gottfried Benn described his years in the wilderness as a ‘double life’, Doppelleben.

99. On Beckmann see Barron, ‘Degenerate Art’, p. 203; on Pasternak, Gladkov, Meetings with Pasternak, pp. 88–90; on exile see M. Durzak (ed.) Die deutsche Exilliteratur 1933–1945 (Stuttgart, 1973), pp. 10–19. Some German artists and writers moved to the Soviet Union. See K. Kudlinska ‘Die Exilsituation in der USSR’, in Durzak, deutsche Exilliteratur, pp. 159–72.

100. Y. Yevtushenko (ed.) Twentieth-Century Russian Poetry (London, 1993), p. 180, ‘Requiem. 1935–40’, written 1961.

101. Yevtushenko, Russian Poetry, p. 184, ‘To Death’, 19 August 1939.

102. Barron, ‘Degenerate Art’, pp. 203, 269–70; N. Wolf Kirchner (London, 2003), pp. 86–90.

103. Lahuson, How Life Writes the Book, pp. 152–9.

104. G. D. Hollander Soviet Political Indoctrination: Developments in Mass Media and Propaganda since Stalin (New York, 1972), p. 210.

105. R. Stites Russian Popular Culture: Entertainment and Society since 1900 (Cambridge, 1992.), pp. 74–6; Fitzpatrick, Cultural Front, p. 212.

106. M. Kater ‘Forbidden Fruit? Jazz in the Third Reich’, American Historical Review, 94 (1989), pp. 16–20; H. Bergmeier and R. E. Lotz Hitler’s Airwaves: the Inside Story of Nazi Radio Broadcasting and Propaganda Swing (New Haven, Conn., 1997), pp. 138–44; C. Lusane Hitler’s Black Victims (New York, 2002), pp. 201–3.

107. Bergmeier and Lotz, Hitler’s Airwaves, p. 139, 145; Lusane, Hitler’s Black Victims, pp. 202–3.

108. Stites, Russian Popular Culture, p. 82; M. W. Hopkins Mass Media in the Soviet Union (New York, 1970), p. 94; A. Inkeles Public Opinion in Soviet Russia: a Study in Mass Persuasion (Cambridge, Mass., 1950), pp. 226–7, 235–6, 255. In 1947 music supplied 60 per cent of programmes, political broadcasts 19.4 per cent, literary programmes 8.6 per cent, children’s programmes 7.9 per cent.

109. Bergmeier and Lotz, Hitler’s Airwaves, p. 6.

110. Bergmeier and Lotz, Hitler’s Airwaves, p. 7.

111. Bergmeier and Lotz, Hitler’s Airwaves, p. 8.

112. M. Turovskaya ‘The 1930s and 1940s: cinema in context’, in R. Taylor and D. Spring (eds) Stalinism and Soviet Cinema (London, 1993), p. 43.

113. Turovskaya, The 1930s and 1940s’, p. 42; Hollander, Soviet Political Indoctrination, pp. 214–15; Inkeles, Public Opinion, pp. 301–3.

114. Turovskaya, The 1930s and 1940s’, pp. 43, 45.

115. P. Kenez ‘Soviet cinema in the age of Stalin’, in Taylor and Spring Stalinism and Soviet Cinema, pp. 56–7, 61; Turovskaya,

The 1930s and 1940s’, p. 42; R. Taylor ‘Red stars, positive heroes and personality cults’, in Taylor and Spring, Stalinism and Soviet Cinema, p. 95.

116. Turovskaya, ‘The 1930s and 1940s’, p. 51.

117. Moritz, ‘Film Censorship’, p. 188; Taylor, Film Propaganda, pp. 145, 151; Welch, Propaganda and the German Cinema, p. 43.

118. Welch, Propaganda and the German Cinema, pp. 31, 35.

119. D. Welch ‘Nazi Film Policy: Control, Ideology, and Propaganda’, in Cuomo, National Socialist Cultural Policy, p. 113; Welch, Propaganda and the German Cinema, p. 14.

120. S. Hake Popular Cinema of the Third Reich (Austin, Tex., 2001), pp. 130–31; Moritz, ‘Film Censorship’, pp. 186–7.

121. S. Kracauer From Caligari to Hitler: a Psychological History of the German Film (Princeton, NJ, 1974), pp. 269–70.

122. E. Khokhlova ‘Forbidden fi lms of the 1930s’, in Taylor and Spring, Stalinism and Soviet Cinema, p. 94.

123. J. Haynes New Soviet Man: Gender and Masculinity in Stalinist Soviet Cinema (Manchester, 2003), p. 52; L. Attwood ‘The Stalin Era’, in Attwood (ed.) Red Women on the Silver Screen: Soviet Women and Cinema from the beginning to the end of the Communist era (London, 1993), pp. 57–8.

124. Attwood, ‘Stalin Era’, p. 65; M. Enzensberger ‘“We were born to turn a fairy tale into reality”: Grigori Alexandrov’s The Radiant Path’, in Taylor and Spring, Stalinism and Soviet Cinema, pp. 97–108.

125. Welch, ‘Nazi Film Policy’, p. 109.

126. Hake, Popular Cinema of the Third Reich, pp. 192–9.

127. Kracauer, Caligari to Hitler, pp. 255–6.

128. Stites, Russian Popular Culture, pp. 73–9; Hollander, Soviet Political Indoctrination, pp. 214–15.

129. Marsh, Images of Dictatorship, pp. 27–8.

130. F. J. Miller Folklore for Stalin: Russian Folklore and Pseudofolklore of the Stalin Era (New York, 1990), p. 7.

131. Miller, Folklore for Stalin, pp. 69, 71; R. Robin ‘Stalin and Popular Culture’, in H. Günther (ed.) The Culture of the Stalin Period (London, 1990), p. 29.

132. L. Mally ‘Autonomous Theatre and the Origins of Socialist Realism: the 1932 Olympiad of Autonomour Art’, Russian Review, 52 (1993), pp. 198–211; see too Lebedeva, ‘Soviet Culture of the 1930s’, pp. 68–76, 83–5.

133. J. Macleod The New Soviet Theatre (London, 1943), pp. 53–7, 65.

134. Taylor, Literature and Society, pp. 246–61.

135. W. Niven ‘The Birth of Nazi Drama’, in London (ed.), Theatre under the Nazis, pp. 54–5.

136. E. Levi ‘Opera in the Nazi Period’, in London (ed.), Theatre under the Nazis, pp. 62–73; see too R. Stommer ‘“Da oben versinkt einem der Alltag…”: Thingstätten im Dritten Reich als Demonstration der Volksgemeinschaftsideologie’, in D. Peukert and J. Reulecke (eds) Die Reihen fast Geschlossen: Beiträge zur Geschichte des Alltags unterm Nationalsozialismus (Wuppertal, 1981), pp. 154 ff.

137. B. Drewniak ‘The Foundations of Theater Policy in Nazi Germany’, in Cuomo, National Socialist Cultural Policy, pp. 68, 82–3; Stommer, ‘Thingstätten im Dritten Reich’, pp. 170–72.

138. Brecht, Poems, p. 299. On Benjamin see B. Taylor and W. van der Will ‘Aesthetics and National Socialism’, in Taylor and van der Will, Nazifi cation of Art, p. 11. On the role of aesthetics in politics see P. Reidel ‘Aspekte ästhetischer Politik im NS-Staat’? in Hermann and Nassen, Formative Ästhetik, pp. 14–21; P. Labanyi ‘Images of Fascism: Visualization and Aes-theticization in the Third Reich’, in M. Lafann (ed.) The Burden of German History: 1919–1945 (London, 1988), pp. 156–60, 170–72. See too S. Behrenbeck Der Kult um die toten Helden: nationalsozialistische Mythen, Riten und Symbole (Vierow bei Greifswald, 1996).

139. Labanyi, ‘Images of Fascism’, p. 169.

140. Spotts, Hitler and the Power of Aesthetics, pp. 100–101.

141. A. Speer Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs (London, 1970), pp. 58–9.

142. H. T. Burden The Nuremberg Party Rallies: 1923–39 (London, 1967), pp. 138–43.

143. Baird, To Die for Germany, pp. 58–6.

144. Baird, To Die for Germany, pp. 62–5.

145. S. I. Luck Observation in Russia (London, 1938), pp. 30–39.

146. Luck, Observation in Russia, p. 33.

147. R. Sartorti ‘Stalinism and Carnival: Organisation and Aesthetics of Political Holidays’, in Günther, Culture of the Stalin Period, pp. 49–50.

148. Sartorti, ‘Stalinism and Carnival’, pp. 58, 71.

149. Brecht, Poems, p. 299.

150. V. Garros, N. Korenevskaya and T. Lahusen (eds) Intimacy and Terror: Soviet Diaries of the 1930s (New York, 1995), pp. 181–2, diary of Galina Shtange, 25 December 1936.

151. Garros et aL, Intimacy and Terror, pp. 183, 191, Shtange diary, 25 December, 1936, 8 May 1937.

152. M. Agursky ‘An Occult Source of Socialist Realism: Gorky and Theories of Thought Transference’, in B. G. Rosenthal (ed.) The

Occult in Russian and Soviet Culture (Ithaca, NY, 1997), p. 250.

153. Agursky, ‘Occult Source of Socialist Realism’, pp. 249, 252–8.

154. Meyer, ‘Musical Façade’, p. 182.

155. Golomstock, Totalitarian Art, p. 179.

 

Глава 10

1. F. Thyssen I Paid Hitler (London, 1941), p. 187.

2. H. A. Wessel Thyssen & Co> Mülheim a.d.Ruhr: die Geschichte einer Familie und ihrer Unternehmnung (Stuttgart, 1991), pp. 47–8, 162–3, 171.

3. Wessel, Thyssen & Co, pp. 48. 171; Thyssen, I Paid Hitler, pp. 30–41, 49–50; A. Barkai Nazi Economics: Ideology} Theory, and Policy (Oxford, 1990), pp. 120–21.

4. V. Kravchenko, 1 Chose Freedom: the Personal and Political Life of a Soviet Offi cial (London, 1947), pp. 174–5.

5. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, pp. 203–4.

6. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, pp. 2–4, 216–22, 226–30, 347–51.

7. K. McKenzie Comintern and World Revolution (New York, 1964), p. 144.

8. F. Pollock ‘Staatskapitalismus’, in H. Dubied and A. Sollner (eds) Wirtschaft, Recht und Staat im Nationalsozialismus: Analysen des Instituts für Sozialforschung (Frankfurt am Main, 1981), pp. 81–106; ‘dysfunctional capitalism’ in A. Sohn-Rethel Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism (London, 1978), pp. 128–31.

9. Bundesarchiv-Berlin, R7/2149 Ohlendorf papers ‘Grundsätze der Volkswirtschafts-politik’ [September 1935], p. 9.

10. See for example P. R. Gregory (ed.) Behind the Façade of Stalin’s Command Economy (Stanford, 2001).

11. In general see T. Balderston Economics and Politics in the Weimar Republic (Cambridge, 2002); H. James The German Slump: Politics and Economics, 1924–1936 (Oxford, 1986); H.-J. Braun The German Economy in the Twentieth Century (London, 1990); R. J. Overy ‘The German Economy, 1919–1945’, in P. Panayi (ed.) Weimar and Nazi Germany: Continuities and Discontinuities (London, 2001), pp. 33–73.

12. See in general R. W. Davies (ed.) From Tsarism to the New Economic Policy (Ithaca, NY, 1991); R. Munting The Economic Development of the USSR (London, 1982); P. Gatrell The Tsarist Economy, 1850–1917 (London, 1986).

13. A. M. Ball Russia’s Last Capitalists: the Nepmen, 1921–1929 (Berkeley, Calif., 1987), pp. 162–5; on small-scale trade A. Baykov The Development of the Soviet Economic System (Cambridge, 1947), p. 107. Out of 165,781 enterprises in the production census in 1923, 147,471 (88.5 per cent) were in private hands. In 1922–3, some 75 per cent of the retail trade was also in private hands (p. 55).

14. Munting, Economic Development, p. 97.

15. R. W. Davies, M. Harrison and S. G. Wheatcroft (eds) The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 36–7, 292. There is no agreed fi gure on the annual rate of industrial growth. The Soviet offi cial fi gure was 16.8 per cent a year.

16. Davies, Harrison and Wheatcroft, Economic Transformation, p. 296; Statistisches Jahrbuch für das Deutsche Reich, 1933 (Berlin, 1934).

17. On Russia see Davies, Harrison and Wheatcroft, Economic Transformation, p. 269. Soviet GNP was 123.7 bn rbls. in 1928, 212.3 bn in 1937 (1937 prices); German GNP from A. Ritschl and M. Spoerer ‘Die Bruttosozialprodukt in Deutschland nach den amtlichen Volkseinkommens-und Sozialproduktstatistiken 1901–1995’, Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte,

37 (1997), pp. 51–2. Growth between 1928 and 1938 was 39 per cent in real terms, from 90.8 bn RM in 192.8 to 12.6.2 bn in 1938.

18. J. Stalin Works (13 vols, Moscow, 1952–55), vol. xii, p. 252, political report of the CC to the XVI Congress of the CPSU, 27 June 1930.

19. R. Zitelmann Hitler: the Politics of Seduction (London, 1999), p. 224; H. Rauschning Hitler Speaks (London, 1939), p. 235.

20. Zitelmann, Hitler, p. 215; Stalin, Works, vol. xi, p. 314; Rauschning, Hitler Speaks, p. 34.

21. J. Stalin Problems of Leninism (Moscow, 1947), p. 300, ‘A Year of Great Change’ Pravda, 7 November 1929.

22. Stalin, Works, vol. xii, pp. 314–20, political report to the XVI Congress; J. Stalin Economic Problems of Socialism in the U.S.S.R. (Peking, 1972), p. 5.

23. Stalin, Works, vol. xii, pp. 311–15.

24. Zitelmann, Hitler, pp. 206, 207.

25. Barkai, Nazi Economics, p. 37.

26. NSDAP Parteitag der Arbeit von 6 bis 13 September 1937 (Munich, 1938), p. 38.

27. O. Wagener Das Wirtschaftsplan der NSDAP (Munich, 1932), p. 5.

28. A. Hitler The Secret Book ed. T. Taylor (New York, 1961), pp. 5–6, 13.

29. Hitler, Secret Book, pp. 14, 24.

30. Hitler, Secret Book, pp. 21–3.

31. K.-H. Minuth (ed.) Akten der Reichskanzlei: Regierung Hitler 1933–1938 (Boppard am Rhein, 1983), vol. i, p. 62, committee for work-creation, 9 February 1933.

32. F. Nonnenbruch Die Wirtschaft in derNS Politik (Berlin, 1935), p. 16.

33. Zitelmann, Hitler, p. 226–7, 232; on planning BA-B, R7/2149, Ohlendorf memorandum, ‘Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftspolitik’,

p. 9; see too A.-I. Berndt (ed.) Gebt mir vier Johre Zeit: Dokumente zum ersten Vier jahresplan des Führers (Munich, 1937), pp. 233–5, Hitler speech 30 January 1937.

34. BA-B R7/2149, Ohlendorf papers, ‘Unsere Wirtschaftsauffassung. Das Program der NSDAP’, p. 9.

35. H. Trevor-Roper (ed.) Hitler’s Table Talk, 1941–1944 (Oxford, 1984), p. 65.

36. See for example D. L. Hoffmann The Great Terror on the Local Level: Purges in Moscow Factories, 1936–1938’, in J. A. Getty and R. Manning (eds) Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 163–8.

37. F. Seurot Le Systeme economique de l’URSS (Paris, 1989), pp. 55–7; J. Schneider and W. Harbrecht (eds) Wirtschaftsordnung und Wirtschaftspolitik in Deutschland (1933–1993) (Stuttgart, 1996), pp. viii – xxii.

38. V. Barnett Kondratiev and the Dynamics of Economic Development: Long Cycles and Industrial Growth in Historical Context (London, 1998), pp. 21–2, 171; N. Jasny Soviet Economists of the Twenties (Cambridge, 1972), pp. 103–5.

39. Barnett, Kondratiev, pp. 190–96; Jasny, Soviet Economists, pp. 119, 127.

40. Jasny, Soviet Economists, p. 141; E. Zaleski Planning for Economic Growth in the Soviet Union, 1918–1932 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1962), p. 58.

41. Baykov, Soviet Economic System, p. 424.

42. Details in E. A. Rees State Control in Soviet Russia: the Rise and Fall of the Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate 1920–1934 (London, 1987), pp. 190–231; O. K. Khlevniuk In Stalin’s Shadow: the Career of’Sergo’ Ordzhonikidze (London, 1995), pp. 41–52, 167; S. Fitzpatrick ‘Ordzhoni-kidze’s Takeover of Vesenkha: a Case Study in Soviet Bureaucratic Polities’, Soviet Studies, 37 (1985), pp. 154–67.

43. C. Bettelheim La planifi cation sovietique (Paris, 1939), pp. 72–3.

44. Rees, State Control in Soviet Russia, p. 231; Baykov, Soviet Economic System, pp. 453–5.

45. J. Millar ‘Soviet Planners 1936–37’, in J. Degras and A. Nove (eds) Soviet Planning: Essays in Honour of Naum Jasny (Oxford, 1964), pp. 127–9.

46. Miller, ‘Soviet Planners’, pp. 120–21; Baykov, Soviet Economic System, pp. 441, 444.

47. Miller, ‘Soviet Planners’, p. 120; see too H. Hunter ‘Priorities and Shortfalls in Prewar Soviet Planning’, in Degras and Nove, Soviet Planning, pp. 3–31.

48. P. Sutela Socialism, Planning and Optimality: a Study of Soviet Economic Thought (Helsinki, 1984), pp. 13–15, 57–8; M. Harrison Soviet Planning in Peace and War, 1938–1945 (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 14–16, 18–19.

49. Bettelheim, planifi cation sovietique, pp. 74–5; Baykov, Soviet Economic System, pp. 455–7.

50. Baykov, Soviet Economic System, pp. 457–60.

51. T. Dunmore The Stalinist Command Economy: the Soviet State Apparatus and Economic Policy 1945–1953 (London, 1980), pp. 6–10.

52. J. A. Tooze Statistics and the German State, 1900–1945: the Making of Modern Economic Knowledge (Cambridge, 2001), p. 186; Gosplan fi gures in E. Zaleski Stalinist Planning for Economic Growth 1933–1952 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1980) pp. 49–50.

53. BA-B R2/540 Schacht speech on ‘Ziele deutscher Wirtschaftspolitik’, 11 December 1934.

54. BA-B R2/540 ‘Die Ansprache Dr Schachts’ 23 January 1937; Rn/318 ‘Ansprache Dr Schachts’, Berlin 10 May 1938, pp. 12–14. Economic management, said Schacht, ‘must only lead to a healthy and life-sustaining economic order, but not to a schematic economic bureaucratism’.

55. R. J. Overy The Nazi Economic Recovery 1932–1938 (Cambridge, 1996); for a critical assessment of growth strategy see C. Buchheim ‘The Nazi Boom: An Economic Cul-de-Sac’, in H. Mommsen (ed.) The Third Reich between Vision and Reality: New Perspectives on German History 1918–1945 (Oxford, 2001), pp. 79–92.

56. G. Corni and H. Giess Brot, Butter, Kanonen: Die Ernährungswirtschaft in Deutschland unter der Diktatur Hitlers (Berlin, 1997), pp. 81–6, 87–98, 133. By 1938 there were 17,300 offi cials running the Food Estate, with 57,400 farmers used as local ‘farm leaders’.

57. R. A. Brady The Spirit and Structure of German Fascism (London, 1937), pp. 266–72.

58. Tooze, Statistics and the German State, pp. 202–3; see BA-B R11/11 for reports from Grünig on national income estimates and economic balances. See too BA-B R43 II/301, Dr Grünig, ‘Probleme der Wirtschaftslenkung’.

59. BA-B R11/77 Reichswirtschaftskammer, economic situation reports. The chamber produced composite quarterly reports, and regular digests of the economic group reports organized into sections on labour, raw materials, industry, wages and prices, trade, etc.

60. On ‘primacy of politics’ F. Marx Government in the Third Reich (New York, 1936), p. 150; telephone tapping in H. B. Gisevius To the Bitter End (London, 1948), pp. 200–201; on Bremen speech H. Heiber (ed.) Reichsführer! Briefe an und von Himmler (Stuttgart, 1968), p. 44, Aktennotiz 1 May 1936.

61. W. Treue ‘Hitlers Denkschrift zum Vier jahresplan 1936’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 3 (1955), p. 206.

62. Imperial War Museum, London, FO 645, Box 156, Goring interrogation, 17 October 1945, p. 8. 63. Berndt, Gebt mir vier Jahre Zeit, p. 211; P. Schmidt Deutsche Wirtschafts-freheit durch den Vier jahresplan (Breslau, n.d.), pp. 2–8; G. Thomas Geschichte der deutschen Wehr-und Rüstungswirtschaft 1918–1943/5 ed. W. Birkenfeld (Boppard am

Rhein, 1966), p. 111.

64. ‘Niederschrift über die Sitzung des Ministerrats 4 September 1936’, in H. Michaelis and E. Schraepler (eds) Ursachen und Folgung vom deutschen Zusammenbruch 1918 bis 1945 (Berlin, 1968), vol. x, p. 545.

65. M. Domarus Hitler: Speeches and Proclamations (4 vols., Wauconda, Ill., 1990–2004), vol. ii, p. 853.

66. BA-B R26/II Anh/2 W. Rentrop, ‘Materialen zur Geschichte des Reichskommissars für die Preisbildung’, pp. 8–13.

67. Der Vierjahresplan i (1937), p. 277.

68. BA-B R26/II Anh/i H. Dichgans ‘Zur Geschichte des Reichskommissars für Preisbildung’ n.d., pp. 4–6, 9–11.

69. Davies, Harrison and Wheatcroft, Economic Transformation, p. 313; M. Dohan ‘Foreign Trade’, in Davies, Tsarism to the New Economic Policy, pp. 224–33, 326–7; W. Beitel and J. Nötzold Deutsch-sowjetische Wirtschaftsbeziehungen in der Zeit der Weimarer Republik (Baden-Baden, 1979), p. 206.

70. Beitel and Nötzold, Deutsch-sowjetische Wirtschaftsbeziehungen, p. 217.

71. L. Prager Nationalsozialismus gegen Liberalis mus (Munich, 1933), p. 3. On autarky in Germany see D. Petzina Autarkiepolitik im Dritten Reich (Stuttgart, 1968); A. Teichert Autarkie und Grosswirtschaftsraum in Deutschland 1930–1939 (Munich, 1984). For a contemporary analysis H. Kremmler Autarkie in der organischen Wirtschaft (Dresden, 1940).

72. R. W. Davies and O. K. Khlevniuk ‘Gosplan’, in E.A. Rees (ed.) Decision-Making in the Stalinist Command Economy, 1932–37 (London, 1997), p. 34.

73. L. E. Hubbard Soviet Money and Finance (London, 1936), pp. 290–96; Baykov, Soviet Economic System, pp. 264–72. In general on Soviet autarky M. R. Dohan The Economic Origins of Soviet Autarky 1927/28–1934’, Slavic Review, 35 (1976), pp. 603–35.

74. Calculated from Davies, Harrison and Wheatcroft, Economic Transformation, pp. 272, 312.

75. K. E. Bailes The American Connection: Ideology and the Transfer of American Technology to the Soviet Union, 1917–1941’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 23 (1981), pp. 443–8.

76. Beitel and Nötzold, Deutsch-sowjetische Wirtschaftsbeziehungen, pp. 208, 210, 217.

77. E. von Mickwitz (ed.) Aussenhandel unter Zwang (Hamburg, 1938), pp. 5, 41; on Hitler’s conversion to autarky E. Syring Hitler: seine politische Utopie (Frankfurt am Main, 1994), pp. 173–4.

78. See in general S. Lurie Private Investment in a Controlled Economy: Germany 1933–1939 (London, 1947); N. Forbes ‘London Banks, the German Standstill Agreement and Economic Appeasement in the 1930s’, Economic History Review, 40 (1987).

79. On the control offi ces BA-B R3101/8445 Economics Ministry ‘Bekanntmachung über die Reichsstellen zur Überwachung und

Regelung des Warenverkehrs’; on the operation of the system G. R. von Radiis Die deutsche Aussenhandelspolitik unter dem Einfl uss der Devisenbewirtschaftung con 1931 bis 1938 (Vienna, 1939). See too W. A. Boelcke Deutschland als Welthandelsmacht 1930–1945 (Stuttgart, 1994), pp. 13–43.

80. Petzina, Autarkiepolitik, p. 95.

81. L. Zumpe Wirtschaft und Staat in Deutschland 1933 bis 1945 (Berlin, 1979), p. 221; H.-E. Volkmann ‘Die NS-Wirtschaft in Vorbereitung des Krieges’, in W. Deist et ah (eds) Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg: Band I (Stuttgart, 1979), p. 262.; W. Jungermann and H. Krafft Roh stoffreich – turn aus deutscher Erde (Berlin, 1939), p. 69 on oil.

82. Details in R. J. Overy ‘The Four Year Plan’, in T. Gourvish (ed.) European Yearbook of Business History: Number 3 (Aldershot, 2000), pp. 101–2.

83. R. W. Davies and M. Harrison ‘Defence spending and defence industry in the 1930s’, in J. Barber and M. Harrison (eds) The Soviet Defence-Industry Complex from Stalin to Khrushchev (London, 2000), p. 73; German fi gures in National Archives, Microcopy T178, Roll 15, Reich fi nance ministry ‘Statistische Übersichten zu den Reichshaushaltsrechnungen 1938 bis 1943’, November 1944.

84. IWM FD 3056/49 ‘Statistical Material on the German Manpower Position during the war period 1939–1944’, 31 July 1945, table 7.

85. B. H. Klein Germany’s Economic Preparations for War (Cambridge, Mass., 1959), p. 14; Davies and Harrison, ‘Defence spending’, pp. 87–8.

86. J. Sapir Les fl uctuations economiques en URSS 1941–1945 (Paris, 1989), p. 47.

87. N. Simonov ‘The “war scare” of 1927 and the birth of the defence-industry complex’, in Barber and Harrison, Soviet Defence-Industry Complex, p. 44.

88. In May 1939 1 in 8 German workers in the consumer industries worked directly on military orders. See R. J. Overy War and Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford, 1994), pp. 27–9 on the conversion of consumer sectors.

89. United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Report 20 ‘Light Metal Industry in Germany’, Part I Aluminium, p. 2.

90. BA-B Reichsamt für Wirtschaftsausbau, New Production Plan, 12 July 1938, ‘Finanzbedarf der Projekte des Vierjahresplan’.

91. R. J. Overy ‘The Reichs werke Hermann Goring: a Study in German Economic Imperialism’, in Overy, War and Economy, pp. 144–74.

92. This excludes investment in areas such as the railways, whose overhaul in the late 1930s also had a strategic purpose; so too the expansion of basic electric power.

93. This view was formulated in United States Strategic Bombing Survey Overall Report, September 1945, p. 31: The Germans did not plan, nor were they prepared for, a long war’. See too N. Kaldor ‘The German War Economy’, Review of Economic Statistics,

13 (1946); A. S. Milward ‘Hitlers Konzept des Blitzkrieges’, in A. Hillgruber (ed.) Probleme des Zweiten Weltkrieges (Cologne, 1967), pp. 19–40.

94. For a survey of all these preparations see BA-B R26 I/18 ‘Ergebnisse der Vier jahresplan-Arbeit’, spring 1942, pp. 5–95. ‘He [Hitler] gave economic policy the task of making the economy ready for war in the space of four years…’ (p. 1).

95. Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik Ser. D., vol. i (Baden-Baden, 1950), p. 27, ‘Niederschrift über die Besprechung in der Reichskanzlei’, 5 November 1937.

96. Overy, War and Economy, pp. 148–59.

97. BA-B R26IV/4 ‘Besprechung über die Eingliederung Sudetendeutschlands in die reichsdeutsche Wirtschaft’, 3 October 1938.

98. IWM, EDS AL/1571 Thomas minute, 20 June 1940.

99. BA-B R2501/6585, Reichsbank memorandum 24 August 1939, appdx 1.

100. P. Temin ‘Soviet and Nazi economic planning in the 1930s’, Economic History Review, 44 (1991), p. 585.

101. H. von Kotze and H. Krausnick (eds) ‘Es spricht der Führer’: 7 exemplarische Hitler-Reden (Gütersloh, 1966), pp. 176–7, speech of 24 Febuary 1937 to construction workers.

102. IWM Case XI Pros. Doc. Book 112, Neumann lecture The Four Year Plan’, 29 April 1941, p. 294.

103. Temin, ‘Soviet and Nazi planning’, p. 584; J. Chapman Real Wages in Soviet Russia since 1928 (Cambridge, Mass., 1963), p. 166.

104. Chapman, Real Wages, pp. 144, 146–8. R. di Leo Occupazione e salari neirURSS 1950–1977 (Milan, 1980), p. 122 calculates that average monthly wages rose in money terms by a factor of 10.8 from 1928 to 1950, but prices by a factor of 11.8. D. Filtzer ‘The Standard of Living of Soviet Industrial Workers in the Immediate Postwar Period, 1945–1948’, Europe – Asia Studies, 51 (1999), pp. 1015–16. On German wages G. Bry Wages in Germany 1871–1945 (Princeton, NJ, 1960), pp. 264, 362. On wage policy T. Siegel ‘Wage Policy In Germany’, Politics and Society, 14 (1985), pp, 5–37.

105. See BA-B R2501/6581 Reichsbank ‘Zur Entwicklung des deutschen Preis-und Lohnstandes seit 1933’, appdx 6, which shows a range of increased weekly earnings against 1933 of – o.8 per cent (book production) to 26.0 per cent (metalworking).

106. Filtzer, ‘Standard of Living’, p. 1019.

107. J. Hessler ‘Postwar Normalisation and its Limits in the USSR: the Case of Trade’, Europe – Asia Studies, 53 (2001), pp. 445–8.

108. O. Nathan and M. Fried The Nazi Economic System (London, 1944).

109. On textiles League of Nations World Economic Survey 1936/7 (Geneva, 1937)” p. 150; H. Häuser, Hitler against Germany: a Survey of Present-day Germany from the Inside (London, 1940) p. 109.

110. On the legal framework BA-B R3102/3602, A. Jessen ‘Die gesteuerte Wehrwirtschaft 1933–1939’, pp. 61–2. See too J. Stephenson ‘Propaganda, Autarky and the German Housewife’, in D. Welch (ed.) Nazi Propaganda (London, 1983), pp. 117–38; F. Grube and G. Richter Alltag im ‘Dritten Reich’: so lebten die Deutsche 1933–1945 (Berlin, 1992), pp. 169–71; W. Bayles Postmarked Berlin (London, 1992), pp. 40–41. in. Hessler, ‘Postwar Normalisation’, p. 448.

111. Hessler, ‘Postwar Normalisation’, p. 448.

112. A. Sommariva and G. Tullio German Macroeconomic History, 1880–1979 (London, 1987), p. 59; Hubbard, Soviet Money and Finance, pp. 111–13.

113. On noiseless fi nance L. Schwerin von Krosigk Stats bankrott: Finanzpolitik des Deutschen Reiches 1920–1945 (Göttingen, 1974), pp. 297–9; W. A. Boelcke Die Kosten von Hitlers Krieg (Paderborn, 1985), pp. 103–4. On increased saving see BA-B R7 XVI/22 O. Donner ‘Die Grenzen der Staatsverschuldung’.

114. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 476; Thyssen, I Paid Hitler, pp. 47–9.

115. See for example J. Heyl ‘The Construction of the Westwall: an Example of National Socialist Policy-making’, Central European History, 14 (1981), pp. 71–4.

116. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, pp. 323–5.

117. Zumpe, Wirtschaft und Staat, pp. 341–2.

118. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom, p. 328.

119. Tooze, Statistics and the German State, pp. 239–44, on problems of data collection; Harrison, Soviet Planning, pp. 26–7.

120. See for example Fitzpatrick, ‘Ordzhonikidze’s Takeover of Vesenkha’, pp. 158–67.

121. R. J. Overy Goering: the cIron Man’ (London, 1984), pp. 53–60, 62–8; on his special powers Reichsgesetzblatt, 1936, Part I, p. 887.

122. Munting, Economic Development, p. 105; Dunmore, Stalinist Command Economy, pp. 19–20; Temin, ‘Soviet and Nazi Planning’, p. 575; S. Fitzpatrick ‘Blat in Stalin’s Time’, in S. Lovell, A. Ledeneva and A. Rogachevskii (eds) Bribery and Blat in Russia: Negotiating Reciprocity from the Middle Ages to the 1990s (London, 2000), pp. 169–76.

123. D. R. Shearer Industry, State, and Society in Stalirfs Russia 1928–1934 (Ithaca, NY, 1996), pp. 235–6.

124. R. W. Davies ‘Making Economic Policy’, in Gregory, Behind the Faqade, p. 75.

125. See for example F. Bajohr Parvenüs und Profi teure. Korruption in der NS-Zeit (Frankfurt am Main, 2001).

126. Overy, War and Economy, pp. 14, 164–6.

127. T. Emessen (ed.) Aus Göring’s Schreibtisch: ein Dokumentenfund (Berlin, 1947), pp. 81–3.

128. Khlevniuk, In Stalin’s Shadow, pp. 51–2.

129. S. N. Frokopovicz Russlands Volkswirtschaft unter den Sowjets (Zurich, 1944), p. 2–57.

130. E. Belova ‘Economic Crime and Punishment’, in Gregory (ed.), Behind the Facade, pp. 145–52.

131. Y. Gorlizki ‘Rules, Incentives and Soviet Campaign Justice after World War IF, Europe – Asia Studies, 51 (1999), pp. 1247–52, 1260.

132. Filtzer, ‘Standard of Living’, p. 1027.

133. Gorlizki, ‘Rules, Incentives and Campaign Justice’, p. 1253.

134. Reichsgesetzblatt, 1936 Part I, p. 1015, ‘Gesetz gegen Wirtschaftssabotage’.

135. BA-B R26/II Anh./i H. Dichgans ‘Zur Geschichte des Reichskommissars für die Preisbildung’, pp. 4–6.

136. BA-B R7/2149, Otto Ohlendorf, ‘Grundsätze der nationalsozialistischen Wirtschaftspolitik’, p. 4. See too D. Majer, Grundlagen des nationalsozialistischen Rechtssystems (Stuttgart, 1987), pp. 152–3; H. Woll Die Wirtschaftslehre des deutschen Faschismus (Munich, 1988), pp. 92–6.

137. J. N. Hazard, I. Shapiro and P. B. Maggs (eds) The Soviet Legal System (New York, 1969), pp. 384–6.

138. A. Nove, An Economic History of the USSR (London, 1992).

139. W. E. Butler Soviet Law (London, 1988), pp. 180–85; J. R. Millar The Soviet Economic Experiment ed. S. Linz (Urbana, 1990), pp. 115–20.

140. Hazard etaL, Soviet Legal System, pp. 402–3; Butler, Soviet Law, p. 189.

141. G. Ambrosius Der Staat als Unternehmer: öffentliche Wirtschaft und Kapitalismus seit dem 19. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1984), pp. 64, 79; NA Microcopy T83, Roll 74, Economics Ministry memorandum ‘Der Zuwachs an staatlichen Unternehmungen in Privatrechtsform’.

142. NSDAP, Der Parteitag der Arbeit, pp. 36–8, Hitler’s speech to the party congress, 13 September 1937.

143. Thyssen, I Paid Hitler, p. 49.

144. A. Barkai From Boycott to Annihilation: the Economic Struggle of German Jews, 1933–1943 (Hannover, NJ, 1989); F. Bajohr ‘Arisierung’ in Hamburg: Die Verdrängung der jüdischen Unternehmer 1933–1945 (Hamburg, 1997).

145. A. Müller-Armack Wirtschaftslenkung und Marktwirtschaft (Hamburg, 1947).

146. G. Bordiugov ‘The Bolsheviks and the National Banner’, Russian Studies in History, 39 (2000), pp. 82–3, 89.

 

Глава 11

1. J. Stalin Problems of Leninism (Moscow, 1947), pp. 460–61.

2. W. Treue ‘Hitlers Denkschrift zum Vierjahresplan 1936’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 3 (1955), pp. 204–5.

3. Treue, ‘Hitlers Denkschrift’, p. 205.

4. A. Hitler The Secret Book ed. T. Taylor (New York, 1961), p. 25.

5. Imperial War Museum, FO 645 Box 162, testimony of Fritz Wiedemann at Nuremberg, 9 October 1945, p. 23.

6. V. I. Lenin Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (Peking, 1965), p. 6: preface to the French and German editions.

7. J. Stalin Works (13 vols, Moscow, 1952–55), vol. xii, p. 182, letter to A. M. Gorky, 17 January 1930.

8. M. von Boetticher Industrialisierungspolitik und Verteidigungskonzeption der UdSSR 1926–1930 (Düsseldorf, 1979), pp. 164–6; J. Erickson The Soviet High Command: a Military-Political History 1918–1941 (London, 1962), p. 284.

9. Boetticher, Industrialisierungspolitik, p. 166.

10. M. von Hagen Soldiers in the Proletarian Dictatorship: the Red Army and the Soviet Socialist State, 1917–1930 (Ithaca, NY, 1990), pp. 204–5.

11. von Hagen, Soldiers in the Proletarian Dictatorship, p. 203.

12. R. Pennington ‘From Chaos to the Eve of the Great Patriotic War, 1922–41’, in R. Higham, J. T. Greenwood and V. Hardesty (eds) Russian Aviation and Airpower in the Twentieth Century (London, 1998), p. 39; see too W. S. Dunn Hitlers Nemesis: the Red Army, 1930–1945 (Westport, Conn., 1994), p. 27.

13. J. W. Kipp ‘Mass, Mobility, and the Origins of Soviet Operational Art, 1918–1936’, in C. W. Reddel (ed.) Transformations in Russian and Soviet Military History (Washington, DC, 1990), p. 95.

14. H. Shukman (ed.) Stalin’s Generals (London, 1993), pp. 220–23; P. A. Bayer The Evolution of the Soviet General Staff 1917–1941 (New York, 1987), pp. 152 ff.

15. I. S. Bloch Modern Weapons and Modern War: Is War Now Impossible? (London, 1900).

16. A. J. Echevarria After Clausewitz: German Military Thinkers before the Great War (Lawrence, Kans., 2000), pp. 85–7, 201–4.

17. E. Ludendorff The Nation at War (London, 1935), pp. 22–3.

18. D. Fensch and O. Groehler, ‘Imperialistische Ökonomie und militärische Strategie: eine Denkschrift Wilhelm Groeners’, Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft, 19 (1971), pp. 1170–77, ‘Bedeutung der modernen Wirtschaft für die Strategie’, c. 1927/8.

19. Boetticher, Industrialisierungspolitik, p. 209.

20. Bayer, Evolution of Soviet General Staff, pp. 152–3; Erickson, Soviet High Command, pp. 293–4.

21. L. Samuelson Plans for Stalin’s War Machine: Tukhachevskii and Military-Economic Planning, 1925–1941 (London, 2000), pp. 11–15, 17–18, 37–8; Boetticher, Industrialisierungspolitik, p. 207.

22. Samuelson, Plans for Stalin’s War Machine, pp. 22–3.

23. Y. Dyakov and T. Bushuyeva (eds) The Red Army and the Wehrmacht: How the Soviets Militarized Germany, 1922–1933 (New York, 1995) pp. 18–26; on the ‘Statistical Society’ see B. A. Carroll Design for Total War: Arms and Economics in the Third Reich (The Hague, 1968), pp. 54–7, 64–71. See too E. W. Hansen Reichswehr und Industrie: Rüstungswirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und wirtschaftliche Mobilmachungsvorbereitungen, 1923–1932 (Boppard am Rhein, 1978).

24. Hitler, Secret Book, pp. 5, 15.

25. Treue, ‘Hitlers Denkschrift’, p. 206.

26. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, pp. 520–21, ‘Address to graduates from Red Army Academies’, 4 May 1935.

27. Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 405, The Results of the First Five-Year Plan’, report to the CC Plenum, 7 January 1933.

28. L. Samuelson ‘Mikhail Tukhachevsky and War-Economic Planning: Reconsiderations on the Pre-War Soviet Military Build-Up’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 9 (1996), p. 828.

29. R. W. Davies and M. Harrison ‘Defence spending and defence industry in the 1930s’, in J. Barber and M. Harrison (eds) The Soviet De fence-Industry Complex from Stalin to Khrushchev (London, 2000), p. 73; R. W. Davies ‘Soviet Military Expenditure and the Armaments Industry 1929–1933: A Reconsideration’, Europe – Asia Studies, 45 (1993), pp. 577–86.

30. Samuelson, Plans for Stalin’s War Machine, pp. 128–43; T. Martin ‘The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, Journal of Modern History, 70 (1998), pp. 837–47.

31. D. Stone Hammer and Rifl e: the Militarization of the Soviet Union 1926–1933 (Lawrence, Kans., 2000), pp. 185–6: Stalin told Voroshilov after the Manchurian invasion that ‘things with Japan are complicated, serious’.

32. Treue, ‘Hitlers Denkschrift’, p. 204; Stalin, Problems of Leninism, p. 461, Report to the Seventeenth Congress of the CPSU, 26 January 1924.

33. B.-J. Wendt Grossdeutschland: Aussenpolitik und Kriegsvorbereitung des Hitler-Regimes (Munich, 1987).

34. R. J. Overy ‘From “Uralbomber” to “Amerikabomber”: the Luftwaffe and Strategic Bombing’, Journal of Strategic Studies, I (1978), pp. 155–6.

35. W. S. Dunn The Soviet Economy and the Red Army 1930–1945 (London, 1995), p. 2–1; see too R. L. Schweller Deadly Imbalances: Tripolarity and Hitler’s Strategy of World Conquest (New York, 1998), pp. 206–7. Schweller calculates a ‘power weight’ in 1938/9, based on resources and military spending, of 100 for Germany, 72.5 for the USSR, 29.0 for Britain, 20.2 for the USA and 15.3 for France.

36. Davies, ‘Soviet Military Expenditure’, pp. 590–91, 601; G. Kennedy The Economics of Defence (London, 1975), p. 79; S. Andic and J. Veverka ‘The Growth of Government Expenditure in Germany’, Finanzarchiv, 25 (1964), p. 261. The fi gure in 1913 was 3.6 per cent.

37. Dunn, Hitler’s Nemesis, pp. 26–32; W. Deist ‘Die Aufrüstung der Wehrmacht’, in W. Deist et al. Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg (Stuttgart, 1979), p. 447. The fi gure by September 1939 was 2.87 million men.

38. M. Harrison Soviet Planning in Peace and War, 1938–1945 (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 250–53; Samuelson, ‘Mikhail Tukhachevsky’, pp. 805–9; R. Wagenführ Die deutsche Industrie im Kriege (Berlin, 1963), p. 74.

39. Overy, ‘From “Uralbomber” to “Amerikabomber” ‘, pp. 155–7; A. Bagel-Bohlan Hitlers industrielle Kriegsvorbereitung im Dritten Reich 1936 bis 1939 (Koblenz, 1975), pp. 117–21.

40. J. Rohwer and M. Monakov Stalin’s Ocean-Going Fleet: Soviet Naval Strategy and Shipbuilding Programme 1935–1953 (London, 2001), pp. 54–62, 103, 229–56.

41. J. Dülffer Weimar, Hitler und die Marine: Reichspolitik und Flottenbau 1920–1939 (Düsseldorf, 1973), pp. 488–504; W. Deist The Wehrmacht and German Rearmament (London, 1981), pp. 82–4.

42. T. M. Nichols The Sacred Cause: Civil-Military Confl ict over Soviet National Security, 1917–1992 (Ithaca, NY, 1993), p. 50; A. van Ishoven Messerschmitt (London, 1975), pp. 115, 172.

43. IWM, FD 3056/49 ‘Statistical Material on the German Manpower Position’, 31, July 1945, Table 7, based on returns from Reichsgruppe Industrie to the statistical offi ce.

44. J. Gillingham ‘The “Deproletarianization” of German Society: Vocational Training in the Third Reich’, Journal of Social History, 19 (1985/6), pp. 427–8.

45. Samuelson, Plans for Stalin’s War Machine, pp. 191–5; N. S. Simonov ‘Mobpodgotovka: mobilisation planning in interwar industry’, in Barber and Harrison, Soviet Defence-Industry Complex, pp. 216–17.

46. J. Heyl ‘The Construction of the Westwall: an Example of National-Socialist Policy-making’, Central European History, 14 (1981), p. 72; R. E. Tarleton ‘What Really Happened to the Stalin Line?’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 6 (1993), pp. 21–61.

47. R. Absolon Die Wehrmacht im Dritten Reich: Band IV, 5 Februar 1938 bis 31 August 1939 (Boppard am Rhein, 1979),

pp. 9–11; see too IWM, EDS Mi 14/478 Heereswaffenamt ‘Die personelle Leistungsfähigkeit Deutschlands im Mob.-Fall’, March 1939.

48. Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik, Ser D, vol. vi (Baden-Baden, 1956), p. 481.

49. Dunn, Hitler’s Nemesis, pp. 27, 29, 57; Simonov, ‘mobilisation planning’, pp. 211–215; D. M. Glantz Stumbling Colossus: The Red Army on the Eve of World War (Lawrence, Kans., 1998), pp. 100–101.

50. On Soviet manpower mobilization G. F. Krivosheev (ed.) Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century (London, 1997), p. 91; B. V. Sokolov ‘The Cost of War: Human Losses for the USSR and Germany, 1939–45’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 9 (1996), p. 165.

51. H. Rauschning Germany’s Revolution of Destruction (London, 1938), p. 133.

52. Stone, Hammer and Rifl e, pp. 3–5; I. Getzler ‘Lenin’s Conception of Revolution as Civil War’, in I. D. Thatcher (ed.) Regime and Society in Twentieth-Century Russia (London, 1999), pp. 109–17.

53. The Military Writings and Speeches of Leon Trotsky (6 vols, London, 1981), vol. iii, pp. 56, 374–5; vol. v, pp. 24–5.

54. Stalin, Works, vol. xii, p. 189, ‘Concerning the policy of eliminating the kulaks as a class’, 21 January 1930.

55. L. Viola The Best Sons of the Fatherland: Workers in the Vanguard of Soviet Collectivization (New York, 1987), p. 62.

56. Viola, Best Sons of the Fatherland, p. 64.

57. R. Hanser Prelude to Terror: The Rise of Hitler 1919–1923 (London, 1970), pp. 266–71; in general see D. Schumann Politisches Gewalt in der Weimarer Republik 1919–1933 (Essen, 2001); B. Ziemann ‘Germany after the First World War – a Violent Society?’ Journal of Modern European History, 1 (2003), pp. 80–95.

58. R. Taylor Literature and Society in Germany 1918–1945 (Brighton, 1980), p. 119.

59. V. Berghahn Der Stahlhelm: Bund der Frontsoldaten 1918–1935 (Düsseldorf, 1966), pp. 275–7, 286; P. Longerich Die braunen Bataillone: Geschichte der SA (Munich, 1989), pp. 159, 184. On the ambiguity of this identifi cation with war see S. Kienitz ‘Der Krieg der Invaliden. Helden-Bilder und Männlichkeitskonstruktion nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg’, Militärgeschichtliche Zeitschrift, 60 (2001), pp. 367–402.

60. W. Wette ‘From Kellogg to Hitler (1928–1933). German Public Opinion Concerning the Rejection and Glorifi cation of War’, in W. Deist (ed.) The German Military in the Age of Total War (Oxford, 1985), p. 83.

61. T. Nevin Ernst Jünger and Germany: Into the Abyss 1914–1945 (London, 1997), p. 108; Wette, ‘From Kellogg to Hitler’, p. 85. See too G. Mosse Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (Oxford, 1990), pp. 159–80; K. Theweleit Male Fantasies: Volume II. Male Bodies: psychoanalysing the white terror (Oxford, 1989), pp. 143–76.

62. Wette, ‘From Kellogg to Hitler’, pp. 88–9.

63. W. H. Chamberlin Russia’s Iron Age (London, 1934), p. 193–4.

64. J. W. Baird To Die for Germany: Heroes in the Nazi Pantheon (Bloom-ington, Ind., 1990), pp. 101–3.

65. Baird, To Die for Germany, p. 106.

66. F. J. Stephens Hitler Youth: History, Organisation, Uniforms, Insignia (London, 1973), pp. 5–7, 10–14, 37, 44–5; C. Schubert-Weller Hitler-Jugend: Vom ‘Jungsturm Adolf Hitler’ zur Staatsjugend des Dritten Reiches (Weinheim, 1993), pp. 165–88; L. Pine ‘Creating Conformity: the Training of Girls in the Bund Deutscher MädeV, European History Quarterly’, 33 (2003), pp. 371–5, 377–80.

67. W. Benz ‘Vom freiwilligen Arbeitsdienst zur Arbeitsdienstpfl icht’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 16 (1968), pp. 317–46.

68. Bank of England, German fi les E8/56 204/8 C. A. Gunston ‘The German Labour Service’, The Old Lady, 10 (December, 1934), pp. 277–87.

69. A. E. Gorsuch ‘“NEP Be Damned”: Young Militants in the 1920s and the Culture of Civil War’, Russian Review, 56 (1997), pp. 566–8, 576.

70. Chamberlin, Russia’s Iron Age, pp. 200–202; Erickson, Soviet High Command, pp. 307–8.

71. J. W. Young Totalitarian Language: OrwelVs Newspeak and its Nazi and Communist Antecedents (Charlottesville, Va., 1991), p. 92.

72. Stephens, Hitler Youth, p. 5; on the idealization of the warrior see P. Reichel ‘Festival and Cult: Masculine and Militaristic

Mechanisms of National Socialism’, in J. A. Mangan (ed.) Shaping the Superman: Fascist Body as Political Icon – Aryan Fascism (London, 1999), pp. 153–67.

73. Getzler, ‘Lenin’s Conception of Revolution’, p. 109.

74. Military Writings of Leon Trotsky, vol. iii, p. 374.

75. Chamberlin, Russia’s Iron Age, p. 299.

76. M. Kipp ‘Militarisierung der Lehrlingsausbildung in der “Ordensburg der Arbeit”’, in U. Hermann and U. Nassen (eds) Formative Ästhetik im Nationalsozialismus (Weinheim, 1994), pp. 2.09, 216–17. See too O. Bartov ‘The Missing Years: German Workers, German Soldiers’, in D. Crew (ed.) Nazism and German Society, 1933–1945 (London, 1994), pp. 54–60; W. Wette ‘Ideologien, Propaganda und Innenpolitik als Voraussetzung der Kriegspolitik des Dritten Reiches’, in Deist et ai, Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, pp. 152–4, 166–73.

77. L. Peiffer ‘“Soldatische Haltung in Auftreten und Sprache ist beim Turnunterricht selbstverständlich” – Die Militarisierung und

Disziplinierung des Schulsports’, in Hermann and Nassen, Formative Ästhetik in Nationalsozialismus, pp. 181–3.

78. Military Writings of Leon Trotsky, vol. v, p. 24.

79. S. Fitzpatrick Everyday Stalinism. Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s (Oxford, 1999), p. 17.

80. K.-J. Müller Das Heer und Hitler. Armee und nationalsozialistisches Regime 1933–1940 (Stuttgart, 1969), p. 63.

81. P. Hayes ‘Kurt von Schleicher and Weimar Polities’, Journal of Modern History, 52 (1980), pp. 37–40 for Schleicher’s view of politics.

82. Erickson, Soviet High Command, pp. 316–17.

83. von Hagen, Soldiers in the Proletarian Dictatorship, pp. 206–9; Military Writings of Leon Trotsky, vol. v, p. 23.

84. Erickson, Soviet High Command, p. 309; von Hagen, Soldiers in the Proletarian Dictatorship, pp. 94–100, ch. 5 passim.

85. Bayer, Evolution of the Soviet General Staff, p. 162.

86. Samuelson, Plans for Stalin’s War Machine, pp. 108–9

87. E. O’Ballance The Red Army (London, 1964), pp. 116–18.

88. V. Rapaport and Y. Alexeev High Treason: Essays on the History of the Red Army, 1918–1938 (Durham, NC, 1985), p. 12.

89. H. J. Rautenberg ‘Drei dokumente zur Planung eines 300,000-Mann Friedenheeres aus dem Dezember 1933’, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 22 (1977), pp. 103–39; M. Geyer ‘Das Zweite Rüstungsprogramm (1930–1934)’, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 17 (1975), pp. 25–72; W. Bernhardt Die deutsche Aufrüstung 1934–1939 (Frankfurt am Main, 1969), pp. 72–4, 84.

90. Carroll, Design for Total War, pp. 91–2, 108–9, 12.

91. R. J. O’Neill The German Army and the Nazi Party, 1933–1939 (London, 1966), p. 87.

92. O’Neill, German Army, p. 90.

93. E. R. Hooton Phoenix Triumphant: the Rise and Rise of the Luftwaffe (London, 1994), pp. 94–9, 110–11; E. Homze Arming the Luftwaffe: the Reich Air Ministry and the German Aircraft Industry, 1919–39 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1976), pp. 51–60, 98–103; A. van Ishoven The Fall of an Eagle: the Life of Fighter Ace Ernst Udet (London, 1977), pp. 152–3, 161–2.

94. Bundesarchiv-Berlin, R2/21776–81, Reich fi nance ministry ‘Entwicklung der Ausgaben in der Rechnungsjahren 1934–1939’, 17 July 1939.

95. O’Neill, German Army, p. 115; A. W. Zoepf Wehrmacht zwischen Tradition und Ideologie: Der NS-Führungsoffi zier im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Frankfurt am Main, 1988), pp. 24–9.

96. O’Neill, German Army, pp. 119–20.

97. See on tensions between old and new elements M. Geyer Traditional Elites and National Socialist Leadership’, in C. Maier (ed.) The Rise of the Nazi Regime: New Perspectives (London, 1986), pp. 57–68; Deist et ai, Deutsches Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, pp. 500–17.

98. On army/SS relations O’Neill, German Army, pp. 143–52.

99. B. Wegner Hitlers politische Soldaten: die Waffen-SS 1933–1945 (Paderborn, 1992.), pp. 104–14.

100. Samuelson, Plans for Stalin’s War Machine, pp. 113–15. Offi cers continued to be investigated in the early 1930s, and party membership withdrawn. See F. Schauff ‘Company Choir of Terror: The Military Council of the 1930s – the Red Army Between the XVIIth and XVIIIth Party Congresses’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 12 (1999), pp. 136–7, 141–2.

101. Rapaport and Alexeev, High Treason, pp. 15–19.

102. Samuelson, Plans for Stalin’s War Machine, p. 114; Nichols, Sacred Cause, pp. 42–3.

103. D. Volkogonov Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (London, 1991), p. 319; C.Andrew and O. Gordievsky KGB: the Inside Story (London, 1990), p. 106.

104. S. Main The Arrest and “Testimony” of Marshal of the Soviet Union M. N. Tukhachevsky (May – June 1937)’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 10 (1997), pp. 152–5.

105. V. Rogovin 1937: Stalin’s Year of Terror (Oak Park, Mich., 1998), pp. 470–82; see too L. Martens Un autre regard sur Staline (Brussels, 1994), pp. 185–90.

106. A. Resis (ed.) Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics (Chicago, 1993), p. 280.

107. A. M. Nekrich Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations 1922–1941 (New York, 1997), pp. 88–9, 99–100.

108. Resis, Molotov Remembers, p. 275; Nekrich, Pariahs, Partners, p. 100; R. C. Nation Black Earth, Red Star: a History of Soviet Security Policy 1917–1991 (Ithaca, NY, 1992.), pp. 90, 96. Rykov also confi rmed a ‘plot’: see N. Leites and E. Bernant Rituals of Liquidation: the Case of the Moscow Trials (Glencoe, Ill., 1954), p. 317.

109. R. Reese Stalin’s Reluctant Soldiers: a Social History of the Red Army, 1925–1941 (Lawrence, Kans., 1996), pp. 134–46; N. M. Yakupov ‘Stalin and the Red Army’, Istoria SSSR, 5 (1991), pp. 170–2.

110. H. Deutsch Hitler and his Generals: the Hidden Crisis, January-June 1938 (Minnesota, 1974), p. 40.

111. H. Trevor-Roper Hitler’s Table Talk, 1941–1944 (London, 1974), p. 633, 16 August 1942.

112. Deutsch, Hitler and his Generals, pp. 80–87, 98–104.

113. Deutsch, Hitler and his Generals, p. 111; F. Hossbach Zwischen Wehrmacht und Hitler 1934–1938 (Göttingen, 1965), pp. 123–4.

114. Deutsch, Hitler and his Generals, p. 251.

115. G. P. Megargee Zwszde Hitler’s High Command (Lawrence, Kans., 2000), pp. 44–5; Absolon, Wehrmacht im Dritten Reich, pp. 156–7.

116. IWM, FO 645 Box 158, memorandum by Wilhelm Keitel, The position and powers of the Chief of OKW, 9 October 1945, pp. 1–2.

117. Deutsch, Hitler and his Generals, p. 307.

118. Deist, ‘Aufrüstung der Wehrmacht’, p. 512.

119. Absolon, Wehrmacht im Dritten Reich, pp. 161–70

120. K.-J. Müller ‘Über den “Militärischen Widerstand”, in P. Steinbach and J. Tuchel (eds) Widerstand gegen den Nationalsozialismus (Berlin, 1994), pp. 270–75.

121. Zoepf, Wehrmacht zwischen Tradition und Ideologie, pp. 32–8.

122. O’Neill, German Army, p. 103.

123. Wegner, Hitlers politische Soldaten, pp. 114–15.

124. H. Holdenhauer ‘Die Reorganisation der Roten Armee vor der “Grossen Säuberung” bis zum deutschen Angriff auf die UdSSR (1938–1941)’, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 55 (1996), p. 137; Reese, Stalin’s Reluctant Soldiers, p. 144.

125. Rauschning, Germany’s Revolution of Destruction, pp. 166–7.

126. K. E. Voroshilov Stalin and the Armed Forces of the U.S.S.R. (Moscow, 1951), p. 53.

127. G. Engel Heeresadjutant bei Hitler 1938–1943: Aufzeichnungen des Majors Engel, ed. H. von Kotze (Stuttgart, 1974), p. 59.

 

Глава 12

1. J. Stalin The War of National Liberation (New York, 1942.), p. 13, speech on the German invasion of the Soviet Union, 3 July 1941.

2. F.Taylor (ed.) The Goebbels Diaries 1939–1941 (London, 1982), p. 415.

3. Stalin, War of Liberation, p. 29, speech on the anniversary of the revolution, 6 November 1941.

4. L. Lochner (ed.), The Goebbels Diaries (London, 1948), p. 18.

5. F. Genoud (ed.) The Testament of Adolf Hitler: the Hitler-Bormann Documents (London, 1961), pp. 103–4, 2 April 1945.

6. E. E. Ericson Feeding the German Eagle: Soviet Economic Aid to Nazi Germany, 1933–1941 (Westport, Conn., 1999), pp. 104–

5, 152; S. Pons Stalin and the Inevitable War 1936–1941 (London, 2002), p. 197.

7. Pons, Stalin and War, pp. 186–96; G. Roberts The Soviet Decision for a Pact with Nazi Germany’, Soviet Studies, 44 (1992), pp. 66–8.

8. A. M. Nekrich Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations 1922–1941 (New York, 1997), p. 230.

9. R. Tucker Stalin in Power: the Revolution from Above, 1928–1941 (New York, 1990), p. 49.

10. V. A. Nevezhin The Pact with Germany and the Idea of an “Offensive “War”’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 8 (1995), p. 811; Pons, Stalin and War, pp. 202–3.

11. Nekrich, Pariahs, Partners, p. 137.

12. Nevezhin, Tact with Germany’, p. 821.

13. R. E. Tarleton ‘What Really Happened to the Stalin Line?’ Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 6 (1993), p. 2, 9.

14. J. Schechter and V. Luchkov (eds) Khrushchev Remembers: the Glasnost Tapes (New York, 1990), p. 46; see too Pons, Stalin and War, pp. 198–9. On fear of Britain see G. Gorodetsky Grand Delusion: Stalin and the German Invasion of Russia (New Haven, Conn., 1999), pp. 14–19.

15. Ericson, Feeding the Eagle, p. 209; Nekrich, Pariahs, Partners, p. 156; H. Schwendemann Die wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit zwischen dem Deutschen Reich und der Sowjetunion von 1939 bis 1941 (Berlin, 1993), pp. 373–5.

16. J. Förster ‘Hitler Turns East – German War Policy in 1940 and 1941’, in B. Wegner (ed.) From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Russia and the World, 1939–1941 (Providence, RI, 1997), p. 120; C. Hartmann Halder. Generalstabschef Hitlers 1938–1942 (Paderborn, 1991), pp. 225–6.

17. Hartmann, Halder, p. 226; J. Förster ‘Hitler’s Decision in Favour of War Against the Soviet Union’, in H. Boog et al. Germany and the Second World War: Volume IV: the Attack on the Soviet Union (Oxford, 1998), pp. 25–9.

18. G. Ueberschär and W. Wette (eds) ‘Unternehmen Barbarossa’: Der deutsche Überfall auf die Sowjetunion (Paderborn, 1994), pp. 98–100.

19. Ueberschär and Wette, ‘Unternehmen Barbarossa? p. 90; N. von Below At Hitler’s Side: the Memoirs of Hitler’s Luftwaffe Adjutant 1937–1945 (London, 2.001), pp. 42–3, 46–7.

20. Ueberschär and Wette, ‘Unternehmen Barbarossa’, p. 91.

21. Genoud, Testament of Adolf Hitler, p. 63, 15 February 1945. In 1945 Hitler maintained that his primary motives were strategic and economic: ‘War with Russia had become inevitable, whatever we did’ (p. 66).

22. Förster, ‘Hitler Turns East’, pp. 121, 126.

23. Ueberschär and Wette, ‘Unternehmen Barbarossa’, p. 107; von Below, At Hitler’s Side, pp. 91–2.

24. H. Trevor-Roper (ed.) Hitler’s War Directives 1939–1945 (London, 1964), p. 86; Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion, pp. 67–75.

25. F. W. Seidler and D. Zeigert Die Führerhauptquartiere: Anlagen und Planungen im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Munich, 2000), pp. 193–6.

26. Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s War Directives, pp. 93–4.

27. Förster, ‘Hitler Turns East’, p. 127.

28. Förster, ‘Hitler Turns East’, p. 129; A. Hillgruber ‘The German Military Leaders’ View of Russia prior to the Attack on the Soviet Union’, in Wegner, From Peace To War, pp. 172, 182.

29. Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s War Directives, pp. 130–31, Directive no. 32 ‘Preparations for the Period after Barbarossa’; Taylor, Goebbels Diaries, p. 414.

30. K. Alt ‘Die Wehrmacht im Kalkül Stalins’, in R.-D. Müller and H.-E. Volkmann (eds) Die Wehrmacht: Mythos und Realität (Munich, 1999), pp. 107–9.

31. D. Glantz Stumbling Colossus: the Red Army on the Eve of World War (Lawrence, Kans., 1998), pp. 90–93.

32. Glantz, Stumbling Colossus, pp. 95–6.

33. Tarleton, ‘Stalin Line’, p. 50; C. Roberts ‘Planning for War: the Red Army and the Catastrophe of 1941’, Europe – Asia Studies, 47 (1995), p. 1319; Glantz, Stumbling Colossus, pp. 103–4.

34. Nevezhin, ‘Pact with Germany’, p. 821.

35. Alt, ‘Die Wehrmacht’, p. 111; L. A. Bezyminsky ‘Stalins Rede vom 5 Mai 1941 – neu dokumentiert’, in G. R. Ueberschär and L. A. Bezminsky (eds) Der deutsche Angriff auf die Sowjetunion 1941: Die Kontroverse um die Präventivkriegsthese (Darmstadt, 1998), pp. 136–41; see too J. Förster and E. Mawdsley ‘Hitler and Stalin: Secret Speeches on the Eve of Barbarossa’, War in History, 11 (2004), pp. 88–100 for recent versions of the 5 May speech.

36. Förster and Mawdsley, ‘Hitler and Stalin’, pp. 101–2.

37. V. A. Nevezhin ‘The Making of Propaganda concerning USSR Foreign Policy, 1939–1941’, in N. Rosenfeldt, J. Jensen and E. Kulavig (eds) Mechanisms of Power in the Soviet Union (London, 2000), pp. 159–60; Nekrich, Pariahs, Partners, p. 241; Förster and Mawdsley, ‘Hitler and Stalin’, pp. 86–7 for the reaction to the 5 May speech.

38. Nekrich, Pariahsy Partners, pp. 228–9.

39. Glantz, Stumbling Colossus, pp. 239–43.

40. G. F. Krivosheev Soviet Casualties and Combat Losses in the Twentieth Century (London, 1997), p. 98; R. Stolfi Hitler’s Panzers East: World War II Reinterpreted (Norman, Okl., 1991), pp. 88–9; A. G. Chor’kov ‘The Red Army during the Initial Phase of the Great Patriotic War’, in Wegner, From Peace to War, p. 416.

41. For details see D. M. Glantz Before Stalingrad: Barbarossa – Hitler’s Invasion of Russia 1941 (Stroud, 2003), chs 7–8; Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s War Directives, pp. 152–5, Directive no. 35, 6 September 1941.

42. J. Toland Adolf Hitler (London, 1976), pp. 684–5.

43. V. P. Yampolsky (ed.) Organy Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti SSSR v Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine (Moscow, 2000), vol. ii, pp. 98–104.

44. Yampolsky, Organy, p. 107.

45. D. Volkogonov Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (London, 1991), pp. 434–5; G. A. Bordiugov The Popular Mood in the Unoccupied Soviet Union’, in R. Thurston and B. Bonwetsch (eds) The People’s War: Responses to World War II in the Soviet Union (Chicago, 2000), pp. 58–9; M. M. Gorinov ‘Muscovites’ Moods, 22 June 1941 to May 1942’, in Thurston and Bonwetsch, People’s War, pp. 123–4; J. Barber ‘The Moscow Crisis of October 1941’, in J. Cooper, M. Perrie and E. A. Rees (eds) Soviet History 1917–1953: Essays in Honour ofR.W. Davies (London, 1995), pp. 201–18.

46. M. Cooper The German Army 1933–1945 (London, 1978), p. 344.

47. Alt, ‘Die Wehrmacht’, p. 111.

48. Kriegstagebuch des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht 5 vols (Frankfurt am Main, 1961–3), vol. i, pp. 1120–21; Soviet fi gures calculated from J. Erickson ‘Soviet War Losses’, in J. Erickson and D. Dilks (eds) Barbarossa: the Axis and the Allies (Edinburgh, 1994), pp. 264–5.

49. E. Zaleski Stalinist Planning for Economic Growth 1933–1952 (London, 1980), p. 291; S. Linz ‘World War II and Soviet Economic Growth, 1940–1953’, in S. Linz (ed.) The Impact of World War II on the Soviet Union (Totowa, NJ, 1985)” p. 13.

50. W. S. Dunn The Soviet Economy and the Red Army 1930–1945 (London, 1995), p. 195.

51. Linz, ‘Soviet Economic Growth’, p. 18; Imperial War Museum, London, FD 3056/49 ‘Statistical Material on the German Manpower Position During the War’, 31 July 1945. These fi gures are based on the annual labour balances produced by the

Reich Statistical Offi ce. The German manpower fi gure includes those classifi ed as ‘handworkers’ as well. Industrial wage-earners numbered 8.37 million in 1942.

52. S. R. Lieberman ‘Crisis Management in the USSR: The Wartime System of Administration and Control’, in Linz, Impact of World War II, pp. 60–61.

53. Zaleski, Stalinist Planning, pp. 287–8; M. Harrison Soviet Planning in Peaceand War, 1938–1945 (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 94–9; Lieberman, ‘Crisis Management’, pp. 60–66.

54. Zaleski, Stalinist Planning, pp. 286, 289–90.

55. Zaleski, Stalinist Planning, p. 317; M. Harrison ‘The Soviet Union: the defeated victor’, in M. Harrison (ed.) The Economics of World War II: Six great powers in international comparison (Cambridge, 1998), pp. 275–8.

56. Linz, ‘Soviet Economic Growth’, p. 20; Harrison, ‘The Soviet Union’, p. 286.

57. F. Kagan ‘The Evacuation of Soviet Industry in the Wake of Barbarossa: a Key to Soviet Victory’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 8 (1995), pp. 389–406; G. A. Kumanev ‘The Soviet Economy and the 1941 Evacuation’, in J. L. Wieczynski (ed.) Operation Barbarossa: The German Attack on the Soviet Union, June 22 1941 (Salt Lake City, 1993), pp. 161–81, 189.

58. Linz, ‘Soviet Economic Growth’, p. 17 on investment; on schools M. Hindus Russia Fights On (London, 1942), pp. 63–4; W. Moskoff The Bread of Affl iction: The Food Supply in the USSR during World War II (Cambridge, 1990), p. 83.

59. Linz, ‘Soviet Economic Growth’, pp. 19–20; J. Barber and M. Harrison The Soviet Home Front 1941–1945 (London, 1991), pp. 147–52 on labour mobilization. On rationing Zaleski, Stalinist Planning, pp. 328–30; Moskoff, Bread of Affl iction, pp. 143–55; Barber and Harrison, Soviet Home Front, pp. 214–15 for ration levels in 1944.

60. Zaleski, Stalinist Planning, pp. 333, 336–7; Moskoff, Bread of Affl iction, pp. 108–9, 175.

61. Moskoff, Bread of Affl iction, pp. 136–42.

62. A. Nove ‘The peasantry in World War II’, in Linz, Impact of World War II, pp. 79–84.

63. Zaleski, Stalinist Planning, pp. 337–40.

64. B. V. Sokolov ‘Lend Lease in Soviet Military Efforts 1941–1945’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 7 (1994), pp. 567–8.

65. Sokolov, ‘Lend Lease’, pp. 570–81; V. Vorsin ‘Motor Vehicle Transport Deliveries Through “Lend-Lease”’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 10 (1997), pp. 164, 172–3; H. P. van Tuyll Feeding the Bear: American Aid to the Soviet Union 1941–1945 (New York, 1989), pp. 156–7.

66. U. Herbert Fremdarbeiter: Politik und Praxis des ‘Ausländer-Einsatzes’ in der Kriegswirtschaft des Dritten Reiches (Berlin, 1985), pp. 270–72.

67. The term was used by Rolf Wagenführ, a Reich Statistical Offi ce offi cial, when he wrote a history of the German war economy for the Allies in 1945. See IWM, FD 3057/49 FIAT Report 1312 ‘Economic History of the Second World War’, pp. 6–8.

68. Hitler’s plan in IWM, MI 14/521 (Part I) ‘Munitionslieferung im Weltkrieg’; War Economy decree Reichsgesetzblatt 1939, Part I, p. 1609 ‘Kriegswirtschaftsverordnung’, 4 September 1939. Total war references in Bundesarchiv-Berlin R2501/7132, Reichsbank, notes for a speech by Director Lange, November 1941; R2501/7041, Report of speech by Reichsbank President 2 February 1940, p. 2.

69. R. J. Overy War and Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford, 1994), pp. 275–81; Soviet comparison in Harrison, ‘The Soviet Union’, p. 291.

70. Overy, War and Economyp, p. 352.

71. IWM, EDS Mi 14/433 (fi le 2), Führer decree ‘Vereinfachung und Leistungssteigerung unserer Rüstungsproduktion’, 3 December 1941, p. 1.

72. IWM AL/1571, Col. Thomas, ‘Aktennotiz über Besprechung mit Minister Speer, 3 March 1942’, p. 1.

73. Overy, War and Economy, pp. 356–64.

74. D. Winkler Frauenarbeit im ‘Dritten Reich’ (Hamburg, 1977), pp. 196–8; S. Bajohr Die Hälfte der Fabrik: Geschichte der Frauenarbeit in Deutschland 1914 bis 1945 (Marburg, 1979), p. 252; R. Wagenführ Die deutsche Industrie im Kriege (Berlin, 1963), pp. 145–7; F. Wunderlich Farm Labor in Germany 1810–1945 (Princeton, NJ, 1961), pp. 297–9; on part time work IWM Box S368, Report 69, p. 5. See too E. Hancock ‘Employment in Wartime: the experience of German women during the Second World War’, War & Society, 12(1994), pp.43–68.

75. On rationing see Overy, War and Economy, pp. 170–71, 282–4; H. Focke and U. Reimer Alltag unterm Hakenkreuz: Wie die Nazis das Leben der Deutschen veränderten (Hamburg, 1980), pp. 179–81.

76. L. Maks Russia by the Back Door (London, 1954), p. 169.

77. C. Simmons and N. Perlina Writing the Siege of Leningrad: Women’s diaries, memoirs and documentary prose (Pittsburgh, 2002), p. 23, diary of Liubov Shaporina, 12 September 1941.

78. Simmons and Perlina, Siege of Leningrad, p. 60, diary of Anna Likhacheva, 16 May, 1942; p. 50, diary of Vera Kostrovitsknia [n.d.].

79. Simmons and Perlina, Siege of Leningrad, pp. 30–31, diary entry, 8 March 1942.

80. See O. Bartov The Eastern Front 1941–1945: German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (New York, 1985).

81. See in general T. Schulte The German Army and Nazi Policies in Occupied Russia (Oxford, 1989); H. Heer Tote Zonen: Die deutsche Wehrmacht an der Ostfront (Hamburg, 1999); H. Heer and K. Naumann (eds) Vernichtungskrieg, Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941–1944 (Hamburg, 1995). On the debate over Wehrmacht criminality K. H. Pohl ‘“Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941–1944’, in K. H. Pohl (ed.) Wehrmacht und Vernichtungspolitik. Militär im nationalsozialistischen System (Göttingen, (1999), pp. 141–60.

82. Ueberschär and Wette, ‘Unternehmen Barbarossa’, p. 107; Förster and Mawdsley, ‘Hitler and Stalin’, pp. 70–78 for text of notes of the speech.

83. J. Förster ‘Operation Barbarossa as a War of Conquest and Annihilation’, in Boog et ah, Germany and the Second World War: Vol IV, p. 485.

84. Schulte, The German Army, pp. 321–2.

85. Förster, ‘Operation Barbarossa’, p. 514.

86. Förster, ‘Operation Barbarossa’, p. 510.

87. H.-H. Wilhelm (ed.) Rassenpolitik und Kriegführung: Sicherheitspolizei und Wehrmacht in Polen und der Sowjetunion

(Passau, 1991), p. 140, ‘Barbarossa-Studie’, Generaloberst Hoepner, 2 May 1941.

88. Förster, ‘Operation Barbarossa’, pp. 492, 500.

89. E. Hesse Der sowjetrussische Partisanenkrieg 1941 bis 1944 (Göttingen, 1969), p. 36; Förster, ‘Operation Barbarossa’, p. 504.

90. Schulte, German Army, p. 317.

91. Schulte, German Army, pp. 319–20; Wilhelm, Rassenpolitik, p. 138, General von Küchler, lecture to divisional commanders,

25 April 1941; Förster, ‘Operation Barbarossa’, p. 516. See too G.K. Koschorrek Blood Red Snow: The Memoirs of a German Soldier on the Eastern Front (London, 2002), pp. 67–9.

92. K. Reddemann (ed.) Zwischen Front und Heimat: Der Briefwechsel des münsterischen Ehepaares Agnes und Albert Neuhaus 1940–1944 (Münster, 1996) p. 227, letter from Albert Neuhaus, 30 June 1941.

93. Koschorrek, Blood Red Snow, p. 64.

94. Stalin, War of Liberation, pp. 14–16.

95. Stalin, War of Liberation, p. 30.

96. A. Sella The Value of Human Life in Soviet Warfare (London, 1992), pp. 100–102; Volkogonov, Triumph and Tragedy, p. 430 for story of Yakov.

97. R. Bidlack ‘Survival Strategies in Leningrad during the First Year of the Soviet-German War’, in Thurston and Bonwetsch, People’s War, pp. 86–7.

98. Pravda, 17 August, 30 August 1942; A. Werth Russia at War 1941–1945 (London, 1964), p. 414; A. Weiner Making Sense of War: the Second World War and the Fate of the Bolshevik Revolution (Princeton, NJ, 2001), pp. 162–3.

99. G. Geddes Nichivo: Life, Love and Death on the Russian Front (London, 2001), p. 40; on German treatment of their own soldiers see M. Messerschmidt ‘Deserteure im Zweiten Weltkrieg’, in W. Wette (ed.) Deserteure der Wehrmacht: Feiglinge – Opfer – Hoffnungsträger (Essen, 1995), pp. 61–2; O. Hennicke and F. Wüllner ‘Über die barbarischen Vollstreckungsmethoden von Wehrmacht und Justiz im Zweiten Weltkrieg’, in Wette, Deserteure, pp. 80–81.

100. Koschorrek, Blood Red Snow, p. 69; see too J. Stieber Against the Odds: Survival on the Russian Front 1944–1945 (Dublin, 1995), pp. 18–19.

101. Koschorrek, Blood Red Snow, p. 275; E. Bessonov Tank Rider: into the Reich with the Red Army (London, 2003), p. 118; Stieber, Against the Odds, pp. 169–70.

102. A. Streim Sowjetische Gefangenen in Hitlers Vernichtungskrieg: Berichte und Dokumente (Heidelberg, 1982), p. 175; C. Streit ‘Die sowjetische Kriegsgefangenen in den deutschen Lagern’, in D. Dahlmann and G. Hirschfeld (eds) Lager, Zwangsarbeit, Vertreibung und Deportation (Essen, 1999), pp. 403–4. See more recently C. Hartmann ‘Massensterben oder Massen Vernichtung? Sowjetische Kriegsgefangenen im “Unternehmen Barbarossa”’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 49 (2001).

103. Russkii Arkhiv 13: Nemetskii Voennoplennye v SSSR (Moscow, 1999), Part I, p. 9.

104. Russkii Arkhiv 13, Part I, p. 17, document 1, Molotov to International Red Cross, 27 June 1941. For Hitler’s views see Toland Adolf Hitler, p. 685. See too C. Streit ‘Die Behandlung der verwundeten sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen’, in Heer and Naumann, Vernichtungskrieg, pp. 78–91.

105. Hartmann, ‘Massensterben oder Massenvernichtung?’, p. 157.

106. Hartmann, ‘Massensterben oder Massenvernichtung?’, p. 158; Herbert, Fremdarbeiter, pp. 148–9.

107. Hartmann, ‘Massensterben oder Massenvernichtung?’, p. 158.

108. Herbert, Fremdarbeiterp, p. 136.

109. S. Karner Im Archipel GUPVI: Kriegsgefangenschaft und Internierung in der Sowjetunion 1941–1956 (Vienna, 1995), pp. 90–94, 194; Russkii Arkhiv 13, Part 2, pp. 69, 76, 159–60.

110. Karner, Archipel GUPVI, pp. 94–104, 195; Russkii Arkhiv 13, Part 2, pp. 171–9, 265–74; R. J. Overy Russia’s War (London, 1998), pp. 297–8.

111. Heer, Tote Zonen, p. 101.

112. C. Streit ‘Partisans – Resistance – Prisoners of War’, in Wieczynski, Operation Barbarossa, p. 271.

113. H. Heer ‘Die Logik des Vernichtungskrieges: Wehrmacht und Partisanenkampf’, in Heer and Naumann, Vernichtungskrieg, pp. 112–13.

114. Hesse, Partisanenkrieg, pp. 178–80; L. Grenkevich The Soviet Partisan Movement 1941–1944 (London, 1999), pp. 77–9; Wehrmachtsverbrechen: Dokumente aus sowjetischen Archiven ed. L. Besymensky (Cologne, 1997), p. 116, OKW Befehl,

16 December, 1942; K.-M. Mallmann “‘Aufgeräumt und abgebrannt”: Sicherheitspolizei und “Bandenkampf” in der besetzten Sowjetunion’, in G. Paul and K.-M. Mallmann (eds) Die Gestapo im Zweiten Weltkrieg: Heimatfront und besetztes Europa (Darmstadt, 2000), pp. 506–7.

115. J. A. Armstrong (ed.) Soviet Partisans in World War II (Madison, Wise. 1964), pp. 98–103, 662; Grenkevich, Soviet Partisan Movement, pp. 92–3.

116. Geddes, Nichivö, pp. 87–95.

117. Mallmann, ‘Sicherheitspolizei und “Bandenkampf”’, p. 503.

118. T. Anderson ‘Incident at Baranivka: German Reprisals and the Soviet Partisan Movement in the Ukraine, October-December 1941’, Journal of Modern History, 71 (1999), pp. 611–13.

119. K. Lutzel Deutsche Soldaten – nationalsozialistischer Krieg? Kriegserlebnis und Kriegserfahrung (Paderborn, 1998), p. 184.

120. Mallmann, ‘Sicherheitspolizei und “Bandenkampf”’, pp. 513–14; see too B. Shepherd ‘The Continuum of Brutality: Wehrmacht

Security Divisions in Central Russia, 1942’, German History, 21 (2003), pp. 60–63.

121. R. Rhodes Masters of Death: the SS Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust (New York, 2002), pp. 219–20.

122. Public Record Offi ce, London, WO 311/45, letter from Judge-Advocate General Western Command Branch to Military Dept., Judge-Advocate General’s offi ce, 1 May 1945, p. 1.

123. See for example M. Mazower ‘Military Violence and National Socialist Values: The Wehrmacht in Greece 1941–1944’, Past & Present, 134 (1992), pp. 129–58; W. Manoschek ‘The Extermination of Jews in Serbia’, in U. Herbert (ed.) National Socialist Extermination Policies: Contemporary German Perspectives and Controversies (Oxford, 2000), pp. 163–85.

124. Gorinov, ‘Muscovites’ Moods’, p. 119.

125. Weiner, Making Sense of War, pp. 172–3.

126. Weiner, Making Sense of War, pp. 177–9.

127. S. Bialer (ed.) Stalin and his Generals: Soviet Military Memoirs of World War II (New York, 1969), pp. 140–41, 143–8.

128. Soviet fi gures in Harrison, The Soviet Union’, p. 285. The armed forces employed 7.1 million in 1941, 11.3 million in 1942, 11.9 million in 1943 and 12.2 million in 1944. German fi gures from H.-U. Thamer Verführung und Gewalt: Deutschland 1933–1945 (Berlin, 1986), p. 718. The numbers conscripted by 1942 were 9.4 million, 1943 11.2 million, 1944 12.4 million.

129. Krivosheev, Soviet Casualties, pp. 85–91.

130. Sokolov, The Cost of War’, pp. 175–6, 187.

131. Bessonov, Tank Rider, p. 44; W. S. Dunn Hitler’s Nemesis: the Red Army 1933–1945 (Westport, Conn., 1994), pp. 62–4; R. Thurston ‘Cauldrons of Loyalty and Betrayal: Soviet Soldiers’ Behaviour 1941 and 1945’, in Thurston and Bonwetsch, People’s War, pp. 239–40; J. Erickson ‘Red Army Battlefi eld Performance, 1941–45: the System and the Soldier’, in P. Addison and A. Calder (eds) Time to Kill: the Soldier’s Experience of War in the West, 1939–1945 (London, 1997), pp. 237–41, 247–8.

132. On the Soviet balance between men and military equipment see J. Sapir The Economics of War in the Soviet Union during World War II’, in I. Kershaw and M. Lewin (eds) Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 219– 21; S. J. Zaloga and J. Grandsen Soviet Tanks and Combat Vehicles in World War II (London, 1984), pp. 146–9, 160–62. On Germany’s capital-manpower ratio see, for example, R. L. di Nardo Mechanized Juggernaut or Military Anachronism: Horses and the German Army in World War II (London, 1991), pp. 37–56, 92–7; R.M. Orgorkiewicz Armoured Forces: a history of armoured forces and their vehicles (London, 1970), pp. 74–9. In general O. Bartov Hitler’s Army: Soldiers, Nazis and War in the Third Reich (Oxford, 1991), ch. 2.

133. Ogorkiewicz, Armoured Forces, pp. 123–4; Zaloga and Grandsen, Soviet Tanksy pp. 146–9, 160–62.

134. V. Hardesty Red Phoenix: the Rise of Soviet Air Power 1941–1945 (London, 1982), pp. 83–8; M. O’Neill The Soviet Air Force, 1917–1991’, in R. Higham and F. W. Kagan (eds) The Military History of the Soviet Union (New York, 2002), pp. 159–62.

135. van Tuyll, Feeding the Bear, pp. 156–7; J. Beaumont Comrades in Arms: British Aid to Russia, 1941–1945 (London, 1980), pp. 210–12.

136. D. R. Beachley ‘Soviet Radio-Electronic Combat in World War IF, Military Review, 61 (1981), pp. 67–8.

137. Koschorrek, Blood Red Snow, p. 64.

138. D. Kahn Hitler’s Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II (New York, 1978), pp. 440–41.

139. Liebermann, ‘Crisis Management’, pp. 61–6; Bialer, Stalin and his Gen-erals, pp. 352–4, 350–51.

140. See P. Schramm Hitler the Man and the Military Leader (London, 1972), pp. 194–205, Appendix II ‘Memorandum on Hitler’s Leadership, 1946’ by Col. A. JodI; W. Warlimont The German High Command during World War IP, in D. Detweiler (ed.) World War II German Military Studies (24 vols, New York, 1979) vol. vi, pp. 6–59. On the record of his meetings on technical and economic issues see W. A. Boelcke (ed.) Deutschlands Rüstungim Zweiten Weltkrieg: Hitlers Konferenzen mit Albert Speer (Frankfurt am Main, 1969); IWM, Box S363, Kartei des Technischen Amtes, 1941–4, pp. 1–24: ‘Liste von Rüstungs-Besprechungen bei Adolf Hitler, 1940–1945’.

141. B. Bonwetsch ‘Stalin, the Red Army, and the “Great Patriotic War”’ in Kershaw and Lewin, Stalinism and Nazism, pp. 203–6; Overy, Russia’s War, pp. 187–90.

142. National Archives, College Park, MD, RG332 USSBS, interview 62, Col-Gen. A. Jodl, 29 June 1945, pp. 6–7.

143. H. Trevor-Roper (ed.) Hitler’s Table Talk, 1941–1944 (London, 1973), p. 340, 26–27 February 1942.

144. NA, RG332, Jodl interview p. 3.

145. Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s Table Talk, p. 82, 21–22 October 1941. See too the remark recalled in T. Junge Until the fi nal Hour: Hitler’s Last Secretary (London, 2003), p. 83. Hitler wanted to’never see any more offi cers’ after the war: They’re all stubborn and thick-headed, prejudiced and set in their ways.’

146. Bonwetsch, ‘Stalin, the Red Army’, p. 203; E. O’Ballance The Red Army (London, 1964), p. 179.

147. M. Fainsod How Russia is Ruled (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), pp. 269, 480–1; T. H. Rigby Communist Party Membership in the USSR 1917–1967 (Princeton, NJ, 1968), pp. 249–6.

148. A. W. Zoepf Wehrmacht zwischen Tradition und Ideologie: Der NS Führungsoffi zier im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Frankfurt am Main, 1988), pp. 35–9.

149. H. Heiber and D. M. Glantz (eds) Hitler and his Generals: Military Conferences 1942–1945 (London, 2002), p. 386; J. Förster ‘Ludendorff and Hitler in Perspective: The Battle for the German Soldier’s Mind, 1917–1944’, War in History, 10 (2003), pp. 329–31.

150. Heiber and Glantz, Hitler and his Generals, pp. 393, 396, meeting of 7 January 1944.

151. Koschorrek, Blood Red Snow, pp. 275–6, 278–9.

152. Förster, ‘Ludendorff and Hitler’, p. 333.

153. Koschorrek, Blood Red Snow, pp. 305–6.

154. Koschorrek, Blood Red Snow, p. 311.

155. Stalin, War of Liberation, p. 23, speech of 7 November 1941.

156. See the many examples of popular enthusiasm in D. Loza (ed.) Fighting for the Soviet Motherland: Recollections from the Eastern Front (Lincoln, Nebr., 1998); on propaganda J. Barber ‘The Image of Stalin in Soviet Propaganda and Public Opinion during World War 2’, in J. Garrard and C. Garrard (eds) World War 2 and the Soviet People (London, 1993), pp. 38–48; J. Brooks Thank You, Comrade Stalin: Soviet Public Culture from Revolution to Cold War (Princeton, NJ, 2000), pp. 165–84; D. Brandenberger National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of Modern Russian National Identity (Cambridge, Mass., 2002), pp. 161–80.

157. Loza, Fighting for the Soviet Motherland, pp. 220–21, appdx B. ‘Order of the People’s Commissar of Defense, no. 227’, 28 July 1942.

158. Erickson, ‘Soviet Losses’, p. 262. Figure of those condemned to death in review by E. Mawdsley, War in History, 4 (1997), p. 230.

159. Gorinov, ‘Muscovites’ Moods’, p. 126.

160. A. R. Dzeniskevich ‘The Social and Political Situation in Leningrad in the First Months of the German Invasion: the Social Psychology of the Workers’, in Thurston and Bonwetsch, Peopled War, pp. 77–9.

161. Bordiugov, ‘Popular Mood’, pp. 59–60.

162. Bordiugov, ‘Popular Mood’, p. 68.

163. B. Bonwetsch ‘War as a “Breathing Space”: Soviet Intellectuals and the “Great Patriotic War”’, in Thurston and Bonwetsch, People’s War, p. 146.

164. Wehrmachtsverbrechen, p. 20.

165. Lochner, Goebbels Diaries, pp. 4–5, entry for 22 January 1942.

166. Lochner, Goebbels Diaries, p. 320, entry for 25 July 1943.

167. Z. Zeman Nazi Propaganda (Oxford, 1968), pp. 165–6.

168. J. Hermand Der alte Traum von neuen Reich: Völkische Utopien und NS (Frankfurt am Main, 1988), p. 341.

169. Hermand, alte Traum von Reich, p. 342.

170. Genoud, Hitlefs Testament, p. 89.

171. P. Winterton Report on Russia (London, 1945), pp. 108–12.

172. Weiner, Making Sense of War, p. 37.

 

Глава 13

1. A. Hitler Mein Kampf’(ed. D. C. Watt, London, 1969), pp. 353–4.

2. F. Hirsch ‘Race without the Practice of Racial Polities’, Slavic Review, 61 (2002), pp. 30–31.

3. J. O. Pohl Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949 (Westport, Conn., 2002), p. 33; M. Parrish The Lesser Terror: Soviet State Security 1939–1953 (Westport, Conn., 1996), pp. 100–03.

4. I. Fleischhauer ‘“Operation Barbarossa” and the Deportation’, in I. Fleischhauer and B. Pinkus The Soviet Germans: Past and Present (London, 1986), pp. 78–80.

5. Fleischhauer, ‘Deportation’, p. 80.

6. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, pp. 42–4; V. Tolz ‘New Information about the Deportations of Ethnic Groups in the USSR during World War 2’, in J. Garrard and C. Garrard (eds) World War 2 and the Soviet People (London, 1993), pp. 161–5.

7. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, pp. 29–30; T. Martin ‘The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, Journal of Modern History, 70 (1998), pp. 853–5.

8. Fleischhauer, ‘Deportation’, pp. 78–9; Martin, ‘Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, p. 853.

9. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, p. 56.

10. M. Burleigh Germany Turns Eastwards: a Study of Ostforschung in the Third Reich (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 16–17; Martin, ‘Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, p. 836.

11. I. Heinemann ‘Rasse, Siedlung, deutsches Blut’: Das Rasse– & Siedlungshauptamt der SS und die rassenpolitische Neuordnung Europas (Göttingen, 2003), pp. 1909–91, 449.

12. Fleischhauer, ‘Deportation’, p. 83.

13. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, p. 44; Fleischhauer, ‘Deportation’, pp. 86–7.

14. Heinemann, ‘Rasse, Siedlung’, pp. 260–61; I. Fleischauer ‘The Ethnic Germans under Nazi Rule’, in Fleischhauer and Pinkus, The Soviet Germans, pp. 95–6; J. Connelly ‘Nazis and Slavs: From Racial Theory to Racist Practice’, Central European History, 32 (1999), pp. 15–19.

15. Heinemann, ‘Rasse, Siedlung, pp. 449–50.

16. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, p. 60.

17. T. R. Weeks ‘National Minorities in the Russian Empire, 1897–1917’, in A. Geifman (ed.) Russia under the Last Tsar: Opposition and Subversion 1894–1917 (Oxford, 1999), pp. 112–14, 117–21; A. Renner ‘Defi ning a Russian Nation: Mikhail Katkov and the “Invention” of National Polities’, Slavonic and East European Review, 81 (2003), pp. 661–5; G. Hosking and R. Service (eds) Russian Nationalism Past and Present (London, 1998), pp. 2–3; A. N. Sakharov ‘The Main Phases and Distinctive Features of Russian Nationalism’, in Hosking and Service, Russian Nationalism, pp. 14–15; D. G. Rowley ‘Imperial versus national discourse: the case of Russia’, Nations and Nationalism, 6 (2000), pp. 23–35.

18. S. Avineri ‘Marxism and Nationalism’, Journal of Contemporary History, 26 (1991), pp. 630–39.

19. J. Smith The Bolsheviks and the National Question 1917–1923 (London, 1999), p. 240.

20. G. Simon ‘Nationsbildung und “Revolution von oben”: Zur neuen sowjetischen Nationalitätenpolitik der dreissiger Jahre’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 8 (1992), p. 46; B. Chiclo ‘Histoire de la formation des territoires autonomes chez les peoples turco-mongols de siberie’, Cahiers du monde russe, 28 (1987), pp. 390–92.

21. M. M. Feinstein ‘Deutschland über alles? The National Anthem Debate in the Federal Republic of Germany’, Central European History, 33 (2000), pp. 506–9.

22. G. H. Herb Under the Map of Germany: Nationalism and Propaganda 1918–1945 (London, 1997), pp. 136–9.

23. A. Kolnai The War Against the West (London, 1938), p. 394.

24. S. Vopel ‘Radikaler, völkischer Nationalismus in Deutschland 1917–1933’, in H. Timmermann (ed.) Nationalismus und Nationalbewegung in Europa 1914–1945 (Berlin, 1999), pp. 162–75.

25. J. Stalin Works (13 volumes, Moscow, 1952–55), vol. ii, pp. 303–7, ‘Marxism and the National Question’, January 1913.

26. Stalin, Works, vol. ii, p. 321.

27. Stalin, Works, vol. ii, p. 296, ‘On the Road to Nationalism: a Letter from the Caucasus’, 12 January 1913.

28. Stalin, Works, vol. ii, pp. 322, 359, 375–7.

29. E. Koutaissoff ‘Literacy and the Place of Russian in the Non-Slav Republics of the USSR’, Soviet Studies, 3 (1951), p. 115. Stalin formulated the phrase in a speech given on 18 May 1925.

30. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, p. 153, ‘Foundations of Leninism’, April 1924.

31. Stalin, Works, vol. vi, p. 109.

32. G. Simon Nationalism and Policy Toward the Nationalities in the Soviet Union (Boulder, Colo., 1991), p. 248; Y. Slezkine ‘The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism’, Slavic Review, 53 (1994), p. 437; see too P. Skalnik ‘Soviet etnografi ia and the nation(alities) question’, Cahiers du monde russe, 31 (1990), pp. 183–4.

33. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 348; A. Hitler, The Secret Book (ed. T. Taylor, New York, 1961), pp. 6, 29, 44; Stalin’s remark in Slezkine, The USSR as Communal Apartment’, p. 445.

34. Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 299, 339–40.

35. Hitler, Secret Book, p. 29.

36. Hitler, Mein Kampf, pp. 271–7; Hitler, Secret Book, pp. 212–13.

37. W. Maser (ed.) Hitler’s Letters and Notes (New York, 1974), p. 221; Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 273.

38. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 355.

39. H. C. D’Encausse The Great Challenge: Nationalities and the Bolshevik State 1917–1930 (New York, 1992), pp. 135–7, 217; Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 23–4.

40. F. Hirsch The Soviet Union as a Work-in-Progress: Ethnographers and the Category Nationality in the 1926, 1937 and 1939 Censuses’, Slavic Review, 56 (1997), pp. 251–64.

41. S. Crisp ‘Soviet Language Planning 1917–1953’, in M. Kirkwood Language Planning in the Soviet Union (London, 1989), pp. 26–7.

42. Simon, Nationalism and Policy, p. 50.

43. Koutaissoff, ‘Literacy and the Place of Russian’, pp. 120–21.

44. S. L. Guthier The Belorussians: National Identifi cation and Assimilation 1897–1970: Part T, Soviet Studies, 29 (1977), p. 55.

45. Stalin, Works, vol. ii, p. 376.

46. J. Smith The Education of National Minorities: the Early Soviet Experience’, Slavonic and East European Review, 75 (1997), p. 302; Y. Bilinsky ‘Education and the Non-Russian Peoples in the USSR, 1917–1967: an Essay’, Slavic Review, 27 (1968), pp. 419–20.

47. Simon, Nationalism and Policy, p. 240; Crisp, ‘Soviet Language Planning’, p. 38; I. Baldauf ‘Some Thoughts on the Making of the Uzbek Nation’, Cahiers du monde russe, 32 (1991), pp. 86–9.

48. G. O. Liber Soviet Nationality Policy, Urban Growth, and Identity Change in the Ukrainian SSR 1923–1935 (Cambridge, 1992), p. 187.

49. Liber, Soviet Nationality Policy, appendix 14.

50. Martin, ‘Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, pp. 842–4.

51. Simon, ‘Nationsbildung und “Revolution von oben”’, pp. 233–4, 247–9.

52. Hirsch, The Soviet Union as a Work-in-Progress’, pp. 271–4.

53. Royal Institute of International Affairs Nationalism (London, 1939), p. 78.

54. Crisp, ‘Soviet Language Planning’, pp. 28–9; Bilinsky, ‘Education and the Non-Russian Peoples’, p. 428; Koutaissoff, ‘Literacy and the Place of Russian’, p. 114; Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 150–51.

55. Details in Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 142–5.

56. Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 144–5, 148.

57. Royal Institute of International Affairs, Nationalism, p. 74; S. G. Simonsen ‘Raising “The Russian Question”: Ethnicity and Statehood – Russkie and Rossiya’, Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 2 (1996), pp. 96–110. See too N. Lynn and V. Bogorov ‘Reimaging the Russian Idea’, in G. Herb and D. Kaplan (eds) Nested Identities: Nationalism, Territory and Scale (Lanham, Md, 1999)-> pp. 101–7; R. Szporluk ‘Nationalism and Communism: refl ections: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Poland’, Nations and Nationalism, 4 (1998), pp. 308–11.

58. Royal Institute of International Affairs, Nationalism, p. 79.

59. A. Powell ‘The Nationalist Trend in Soviet Historiography’, Soviet Studies, 2 (1950/1), pp. 373–5; D. Brandenberger National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the formation of Modern Russian National Identity 1931–1956 (Cambridge, Mass., 2002), pp. 71–6, 86–94.

60. M. Perrie ‘Nationalism and History: the Cult of Ivan the Terrible in Stalin’s Russia’, in Hosking and Service (eds), Russian Nationalism, pp. 107–13; K. E. Platt and D. Brandenberger Terribly Romantic, Terribly Progressive, or Terribly Tragic: Rehabilitating Ivan IV under I. V. Stalin’, Russian Review, 58 (1999), pp. 637–8.

61. R. Bergan Sergei Eisenstein: a Life in Confl ict (New York, 1997), pp. 296–306; see too D. Brandenberger ‘Soviet social mentalite and Russo-centrism on the eve of war’, Jahrbuch für die Geschichte Osteruropas, 44 (1996), pp. 388, 392–4.

62. R. Stites Russian Popular Culture: Entertainment and Society since 1900 (Cambridge, 1992) p. 57.

63. Royal Institute of International Affairs, Nationalism, p. 79; see too Lynn and Bogorov, ‘Reimaging the Russian Idea’, pp. 107–8.

64. Martin, ‘Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, pp. 830–31, 837, 845–9.

65. N. Bugai The Deportation of Peoples in the Soviet Union (New York, 1996), pp. 28–31; Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 199–200; Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, pp. 9–19.

66. Martin, ‘Soviet Ethnic Cleansing’, pp. 853–7.

67. P. J. Duncan ‘Ukrainians’, in G. Smith (ed.) The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union (London, 1990), pp. 96–7.

68. Simon, Nationalism and Policy, pp. 162–3.

69. W. Taubman Khrushchev: the Man and his Era (New York, 2002), p. 99.

70. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, pp. 1–3.

71. On Esperanto speakers see K. Sword (ed.) The Soviet Takeover of the Polish Eastern Provinces, 1939–1941 (London, 1991), appendix 3c ‘NKVD Instructions Relating to “Anti-Soviet Elements”’.

72. K. Sword Deportation and Exile: Poles in the Soviet Union, 1939–48 (London, 1994), pp. 25–7; J. Gross Revolution from

Abroad: the Soviet Conquest of Poland’s Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (Princeton, NJ, 1988), pp. 193–4.

73. Tolz, ‘Deportations of Ethnic Groups’, p. 162.

74. Sword, Deportation and Exile, p. 22.

75. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, p. 5; Tolz, ‘Deportation of Ethnic Groups’, pp. 161–7; Bougai, Deportation of Peoples, passim.

76. Tolz, ‘Deportation of Ethnic Groups’, p. 164.

77. Tolz, ‘Deportation of Ethnic Groups’, p. 166.

78. N. Levin Paradox of Survival: the Jews in the Soviet Union since 1917 (2 vols, London, 1990), vol. i, pp. 477–9, 484.

79. Stalin, Works, vol. ii, pp. 307–8, 345, 359; J. Miller ‘Soviet Theory on the Jews’, in L. Kochan (ed.) The Jews in Soviet Russia since 1917 (Oxford, 1978), pp. 49–52.

80. J. B. Schechtman ‘The USSR, Zionism and Israel’, in Kochan, Jews in Soviet Russia, pp. 106–8.

81. Z. Gitelman ‘Soviet Jewry before the Holocaust’, in Z. Gitelman (ed.) Bitter Legacy: Confronting the Holocaust in the USSR (Bloomington, Ind., 1997), p. 5; B. Pinkus ‘La participation des minorities nationals extraterritoriales à la vie politique et publique de l’Union Soviétique, 1917–1939’, Cahiers du monde russe, 36 (1995) pp. 299–300.

82. Schechtman, ‘The USSR, Zionism and Israel’, p. 118.

83. Gitelman, ‘Soviet Jewry’, p. 6; Smith, ‘Education of National Minorities’, p. 30; see too S. W. Baron The Russian Jew under Tsars and Soviets (2nd edn, New York, 1987), pp. 226–34.

84. M. Altshuler Soviet Jewry on the Eve of the Holocaust (Jerusalem, 1998), pp. 30, 146; Levin, Paradox of Survival, pp. 134–

43, 233; E. Lohr ‘The Russian Army and the Jews: Mass Deportations, Hostages, and Violence during World War P, Russian

Review, 60 (2001), p. 408 on the Pale.

85. Altshuler, Soviet Jewry, p. 146.

86. Levin, Paradox of Survival, pp. 275–6.

87. Altshuler, Soviet Jewry, p. 26.

88. C. Abramsky ‘The Biro-Bidzhan Project, 1927–1959’, in Kochan, Jews in Soviet Russia, pp. 70–71, 73–7.

89. B.-C. Pinchuk Shtetl Jews under Soviet Rule: Eastern Poland on the Eve of the Holocaust (London, 1990), pp. 55, 129–31.

90. Pinchuk, Shtetl Jews, p. 39.

91. Schechtman, ‘The USSR, Zionism and Israel’, p. 124.

92. S. Sebag Montefi ore Stalin: the Court of the Red Tsar (London, 2003), pp. 509–10; A. Vaksberg Stalin against the Jews (New York, 1994), pp. 159–81; Levin, Paradox of Survival, pp. 393–4.

93. For details see B. Pinkus The Jews of the Soviet Union: the History of a National Minority (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 142–50, 174–7; Y. Rapaport The Doctors’ Plot: Stalin’s Last Crime (London, 1991); J. Brent and V. Naumov Stalin’s Last Crime: the Plot against the Jewish Doctors, 1948–1953 (London, 2002).

94. A. Blakely Russia and the Negro (Washington DC, 1986), p. 101.

95. Hirsch, ‘Race without Racial Polities’, pp. 32–5; A. Weiner ‘Nothing but Certainty’, Slavic Review, 61 (2002), pp. 44–51. See for a different view E. D. Weitz ‘Racial Politics without the Concept of Race: Reevaluating Soviet Ethnic and National Purges’, Slavic Review, 61 (2002), pp. 1–29.

96. Hirsch, ‘Race without Racial Polities’, p. 36.

97. Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik, Ser. D, vol. I (Baden-Baden, 1950), p. 25, ‘Niederschrift über die Besprechung in der Reichskanzlei’, 5 November 1937.

98. S. Lauryssens The Man who Invented the Third Reich (Stroud, 1999), pp. 140, 146, 151.

99. J. W. Young Totalitarian Language: Orwell’s Newspeak and its Nazi and Communist Antecedents (Charlottesville, Va., 1991), p. 108.

100. M. Quinn The Swastika: Constructing the Symbol (London, 1994), pp. 21, 116, 130–33.

101. Feinstein, ‘Deutschland über alles?’, pp. 506–9; J. W. Baird To Die for Germany: Heroes in the Nazi Pantheon (Bloomington, Ind., 1990), pp. 79–80, 264–5.

102. A. Kruck Geschichte des Alldeutschen Verbandes 1890–1939 (Wiesbaden, 1954), p. 216.

103. R.J. O’Neill The German Army and the Nazi Party 1933–1939 (London, 1966), p. 87.

104. Royal Institute of International Affairs, Nationalism, p. 78.

105. J. A. Leopold Alfred Hugenberg: The Radical Nationalist Campaign against the Weimar Republic (New Haven, Conn., 1977), pp. 149–63.

106. Kruck, Geschichte des Alldeutschen Verbandes, pp. 216–17.

107. Herb, Under the Map of Germany’, pp. 132–40.

108. F. L. Kroll Utopie als Ideologie: Geschichtsdenken und politisches Handeln im Dritten Reich (Paderborn, 1998), pp. 217–2.0; see too A. A. Kallis ‘To Expand or not to Expand? Territory, Generic Fascism and the Quest for an “Ideal Fatherland’”, Journal of Contemporary History, 38 (2003), pp. 237–60; J. Hermand Der alte Traum vom neuen Reich: Völkische Utopien und Nationalsozialismus (Frankfurt am Main, 1988), pp. 321–33.

109. F. El-Tayeb ‘“Blood is a very special Juice”: Racialized Bodies and Citizenship in Twentieth-Century Germany’, International Review of Social History, 44 (1999), Supplement, pp. 149–53, 162.

110. E. Syring Hitler: seine politische Utopie (Frankfurt am Main, 1994), p. 210.

111. Vopel, ‘Radikaler, völkischer Nationalismus’, p. 164.

112. M. Dean The Development and Implementation of Nazi Denaturalization and Confi scation Policy up to the Eleventh Decree of the Reich Citizenship Law’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 16 (2002), pp. 218–20.

113. H. Kaden and L. Nestler (eds) Dokumente des Verbrechens: aus Akten des Dritten Reiches 1933–1945 (3 vols., Berlin, 1993), vol. i, pp. 60–62, Reichsbürgergesetz, 15 September 1935; Gesetz zum Schütze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre, 15 September 1935.

114. P. Weindling Health, Race and German Politics between National Unifi cation and Nazism 1870–1945 (Cambridge, 1989), p. 530; C. Lusane Hitler’s Black Victims (New York, 2002).

115. Dokumente des Verbrechens, vol. i, pp. 66–7, Erste Verordnung zum Reichsbürgergesetz, 14 November 1935.

116. B. Miller-Lane (ed.) Nazi Ideology before 1933: A Documentation (Manchester, 1978), p. 115 from ‘Marriage Laws and the Principles of Breeding’; Heinemann, “Rasse, Siedlung, pp. 62–6; D. Bergen The Nazi Concept of “Volksdeutsche” and the Exacerbation of Anti-Semitism in Eastern Europe 1939–1945’, Journal of Contemporary History, 29 (1994), pp. 569–72 for details of the ‘Volksliste’.

117. Heinemann, ‘Rasse, Siedlung’, pp. 190–95.

118. Heinemann, ‘Rasse, Siedlung’, pp. 64–5; on the fi gures for those recorded, pp. 600–602.

119. Connelly, ‘Nazis and Slavs’, pp. 18–19; see too G. Bock ‘Gleichheit und Differenz in der nationalsozialistischen Rassenpolitik’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 19 (1993), pp. 277–310.

120. R. Lukes The Forgotten Holocaust: the Poles under German Occupation 1939–1944 (Lexington, Kty, 1986), p. 8; see too J. T. Gross Polish Society under German Occupation: the Generalgouvernement, 1939–1944 (Princeton, NJ., 1979), pp. 195–8 on German nationality policy.

121. Connelly, ‘Nazis and Slavs’, p. 10.

122. Lukes, Forgotten Holocaust, p. 8; G. Aly ‘Final Solution’: Nazi Population Policy and the Murder of the European Jews (London, 1999), pp. 108–13; Kroll, Utopie, p. 220. See too W. Pyta ‘“Menschenökonomie”: Das Ineinandergreifen von ländlicher Sozialraumgestaltung und rassenbiologischer Bevölkerungspolitik im nationalsozialistischen Staat’, Historisches Zeitschrift, 273 (2001), pp. 31–94.

123. G. Lewy The Nazi Persecution of the Gypsies (Oxford, 2000), pp. 43–5, 47.

124. Lewy, Persecution of the Gypsies, pp. 52–3; E. Thurner National Socialism and Gypsies in Austria (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1998), pp. 11–12.

125. Thurner, Gypsies in Austria, pp. 38–9.

126. Lewy, Persecution of the Gypsies, pp. 66–9.

127. G. Lewy ‘Gypsies and Jews under the Nazis’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 13 (1999), pp. 385–7.

128. Lewy, ‘Gypsies and Jews’, pp. 388–93.

129. B. D. Lutz and J. M. Lutz ‘Gypsies as victims of the Holocaust’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 9 (1995), p. 356.

130. Lewy, Persecution of the Gypsies, p. 43.

131. A. Elon The Pity of it All: a Portrait of Jews in Germany 1743–1933 (London, 2002), pp. 210, 378; O. Heilbronner ‘From Antisemitic Peripheries to Antisemitic Centres: The Place of Antisemitism in Modern German History’, Journal of Contemporary History, 35 (2000), pp. 560–75.

132. Elon, Pity of it All, p. 379; F. Nicosia The Third Reich and the Palestine Question (London, 1985), p. 212 for fi gures from 1932 onwards.

133. S. Haffner Defying Hitler: a memoir (London, 2002), pp. 121–2.

134. Bundesarchiv, Berlin R2501/6601, Reichsbank research department, ‘Bedenkliche wirtschaftliche Auswirkungen des Judenboykotts’, appendix, pp. 1–5.

135. V. Klemperer I Shall Bear Witness: the Diaries of Viktor Klemperer 1933–41 (London, 1998), p. 13.

136. S. Friedländer Nazi Germany and the Jews: the Years of Persecution 1933–1939 (London, 1997), pp. 27–9.

137. Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, p. 28; see too C. Koonz The Nazi Conscience (Cambridge, Mass., 2003), pp. 166–7.

138. H. Michaelis and E. Schraepler (eds) Ursachen und Folgen vom deutschen Zusammenbruch 1918 bis 1945 (Berlin, 1968), vol. xi, p. 605, Himler decree, 3 December 1938.

139. W. Benz (ed.) Die Juden in Deutschland 1933–1945: Leben unter nationalsozialistischer Herrschaft (Munich, 1988), p. 783.

140. Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, pp. 62–3; Nicosia, Third Reich and Palestine, pp. 41–9, 212; Benz, Juden in Deutschland, pp. 733, 738. Benz gives a fi gure of 168, 972 for May 1941 and 163, 696 for October that year.

141. Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, p. 177.

142. Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, pp. 242–6; B. F. Pauley Prom-Prejudice to Persecution: a History of Austrian Anti-Semitism (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992), pp. 284–97.

143. H. Mommsen Von Weimar nach Auschwitz. Zur Geschichte Deutschlands in der Weltkriegsepoche (Stuttgart, 1999), pp. 268–82.

144. Connelly, ‘Nazis and Slavs’, p. 33.

145. Maser, Hitler’s Letters and Notes, pp. 279–83; see too K.-U. Merz Das Schreckbild: Deutschland und der Bolschewismus 1917 bis 1921 (Frankfurt am Main, 1995), pp. 457–71 for Hitler’s view of the Jews in the early 1920s.

146. W. Treue ‘Hitlers Denkschrift zum Vier jahresplan 1936’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 3 (1955) pp. 204–5.

147. National Archives II (College Park, MD) RG 238, Jackson papers, Box 3, translation of letter from Robert Ley to Dr Pfl ücker, 24 October 1945.

148. Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, pp. 3, 12.

149. National Archives, RG 238, Jackson papers, Box 3, Robert Ley to Dr Pfl ücker.

150. Hitler’s speech in M. Domarus Hitler’s Speeches and Proclamations 1939–1940 (Würzburg, 1997), pp. 1448–9, Hitler’s speech to the Reichstag, 30 January 1939; Himmler in Kroll, Utopie, pp. 213–16.

151. P. Longerich The Unwritten Order: Hitler’s Role in the Final Solution (Stroud, 2001), pp. 51–3.

152. Longerich, Unwritten Order, pp. 63–5; see the discussion of recent debates in M. Roseman ‘Recent Writing on the Holocaust’, Journal of Contemporary History, 36 (2001), pp. 361–72.

153. R. Breitman ‘Himmler and the “Terrible Secret” among the executioners’, Journal of Contemporary History, 26 (1991), pp. 436–7.

154. See for example W. Benz, K. Kwiet and J. Matthäus Einsatz im ‘Reichskommissariat Ostland’: Dokumente zum Völkermord im Baltikum und in Weissrussland 1941–1944 (Berlin, 1998) for a detailed documentation of the process of ghettoization and mass shootings. See too Aly, ‘Final Solution’, chs 3, 7 and 8 on ghettos and deportation.

155. T. Jersak ‘Die Interaktion von Kriegsverlauf und Judenvernichtung: ein Blick auf Hitlers Strategie im Spätsommer 1941’, Historisches Zeitschrift, 268 (1999), pp. 345–60.

156. P. Witt ‘Two Decisions Concerning the “Final Solution to the Jewish Question”: Deportation to Lodz and Mass Murder in Chelmno’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 9 (1995), p. 319; C. Gerlach ‘The Wannsee Conference, the Fate of the German Jews, and Hitler’s Decision in Principle to Exterminate All European Jews’, Journal of Modern History, 70 (1998), pp. 762–8.

157. Gerlach ‘Wannsee Conference’, pp. 784–5.

158. Gerlach, ‘Wannsee Conference’, pp. 807–8; for other views on the signifi cance of the meeting on 12 December see M. Moll ‘Steuerungsinstrument im “Ämterchaos”? Die Tagungen der Reichs-und Gauleiter der NSDAP’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 49 (2001), pp. 240–43; see too U. Herbert (ed.) National Socialist Extermination Policies: Contemporary German Perspectives and Controversies (Oxford, 2000), pp. 38–41.

159. J. von Lang (ed.) Das Eichtnann-Protokoll: Tonbandaufzeichnungen der israelischen Verhörer (Berlin, 1982), pp. 69, 86.

160. M. Roseman The Villa, the Lake, the Meeting: Wannsee and the Final Solution (London, 2002), chs 3–4.

161. F. Genoud (ed.) The Testament of Adolf Hitler: the Hitler-Bormann Documents (London, 1961), pp. 51–2, entry for

13 February 1945.

162. Hitler, Mein Kampf, p. 403.

163. Weitz ‘Racial Polities’, p. 23.

164. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, pp. 2–3.

165. Breitman ‘Himmler and the “Terrible Secret”’, p. 234.

166. M. I. Koval The Nazi Genocide of the Jews and the Ukrainian Population 1941–1944’, in Gitelman, Bitter Legacy, pp. 52–3.

167. K. Slepyan The Soviet Partisan Movement and the Holocaust’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 14 (2000), pp. 2–6.

168. Z. Gitelman ‘Soviet Reactions to the Holocaust 1945–1991’, in L. Dobroszycki and J. Gurock (eds) The Holocaust in the Soviet Union: Studies and Sources on the Destruction of the Jews in Nazi-Occupied Territories of the USSR 1941–1945 (New York, 1993), pp. 3, 13–18.

 

Глава 14

1. V. Grossman Life and Fate (London, 1985), p. 23.

2. A. Kilian Einzuweisen zur völligen Isolierung NKWD-Speziallager Mühlberg/Elbe 1945–1948 (Leipzig, 1993), pp. 79 ff.

3. Kilian, NKWD-Speziallager Mühlberg/Elbe, p. 7.

4. N. Tumarkin The Living and the Dead: the Rise and Fall of the Cult of World War II in Russia (New York, 1994), pp. 113–15.

5. M. Jakobsen Origins of the Gulag: the Soviet Prison Camp System 1917–1934 (London, 1993), pp. 17–41.

6. Jakobsen, Origins of the Gulag, pp. 112–14; R. Stettner ‘Archipel GULag’: Stalins Zwangslager – Terrorinstrument und Wirtschaftsgigant (Paderborn, 1996), pp. 66–76; G. M. Ivanova Labor Camp Socialism: the Gulag in the Soviet Totalitarian System (New York, 2000), pp. 13–15. In 1921 there were approximately 50,000 prisoners in Cheka camps. See too A. Applebaum Gulag: a History of the Soviet Camps (London, 2003), chs 1–2.

7. Jakobsen, Origins of the Gulag, pp. 69, 91.

8. Jakobsen, Origins of the Gulag, pp. 125–6; J. Pohl The Stalinist Penal System (Jefferson, NC, 1997), p. 12.

9. U. Parvilahti Beria’s Gardens: Ten Years’ Captivity in Russia and Siberia (London, 1959), p. 94.

10. Jakobsen, Origins of the Gulag, pp. 119–21; Stettner, ‘Archipel GULag’, pp. 76–87; M. Flores and F. Gori (eds) GULag: il sistema dei lager in URSS (Milan, 1999), pp. 25–6.

11. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 14–15; Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, pp. 23–5.

12. K. Drobisch and G. Wieland System der NS-Konzentrationslager 1933–1939 (Berlin, 1993), pp. 16–18.

13. Drobisch and Wieland, NS-Konzentrationslager, p. 16.

14. G. Schwarz Die nationalsozialistischen Lager (Frankfurt am Main, 1990), pp. 139–41, who counts 59 camps set up in 1933 and

1934; J. Tuchel ‘Dimensionen des Terrors: Funktionen der Konzentrationslager in Deutschland 1933–1945’, in D. Dahlmann and G. Hirschfeld (eds) Lager, Zwangsarbiet, Vertreibung und Deportation (Essen, 1999), pp. 374, 383; Drobisch and Wieland, NS-Konzentrationslager, pp. 73–5.

15. Eicke in J. Tuchel (ed.) Die Inspektion der Konzentrationslager 1938–1945: Eine Dokumentation (Berlin, 1994), pp. 36–7, ‘Disziplinar-und Strafordnung für das Gefangenenlager’, 1 August 1934; Drobisch and Wieland, NS-Konzentrationslager, pp. 98–9; W. Sofsky The Order of Terror: The Concentration Camp (Princeton, NJ, 1997), pp. 31–2. On Eicke see C. W. Sydnor Soldiers of Destruction: The SS Death’s Head Division, 1933–1945 (Princeton, NJ, 1977), pp. 3–13.

16. Tuchel, Inspektion der Konzentrationslager, p. 34; Sofsky, Order of Terror, pp. 30–31.

17. Tuchel, Inspektion der Konzentrationslager, p. 40; Drobisch and Wieland, NS-Konzentrationslager, pp. 186–91; Tuchel, ‘Dimensionen des Terrors’, p. 379.

18. F. Pingel Häftlinge unter SS-Herrseh aft: Widerstand, Selbstbehauptung und Vernichtung im Konzentrationslager (Hamburg, 1978), pp. 39–40.

19. Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, p. 62.

20. H. Kaienberg ‘Vernichtung durch Arbeit’: Der Fall Neuengamme (Bonn, 1990), p. 335 Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrsch aft, pp. 61–2; K. Orth Das System der nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslager: Eine politische Organisationsgeschichte (Hamburg, 1999), p. 32.

21. H. Kaienberg Konzentrationslager und deutsche Wirtschaft 1939–1945 (Opladen, 1996), pp. 24–5; Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, p. 62.

22. Kaienberg, Konzentrationslager, p. 26.

23. Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, pp. 61–2.

24. Orth, Das System der Konzentrationslager, pp. 47–51; on SS economic activities see J. E. Schulte Zwangsarbeit und Vernichtung: Das Wirtschaftsimperium der SS (Paderborn, 2001).

25. W. Kirstein Das Konzentrationslager als Institution totalen Terrors: Das Beispiel des Konzentrationslager Natzweiler (Pfaffenweiler, 1992), pp. 1–33.

26. H. Kaienberg ‘KZ-Haft und Wirtschaftsinteresse: Das Wirtschaftsverwal-tungshauptamt der SS als Leistungszentrale der Konzentrationslager und der SS-Wirtschaft’, in Kaienberg, Konzentrationslager, p. 51.

27. Kirstein, Konzentrationslager Natzweiler, p. 8. The remark was overheard by Rudolf Höss, the future commandant of Auschwitz, who personally killed the fi rst victim of accusations of sabotage, a Junkers aircraft worker who refused to comply with air-raid drill.

28. F. Karay Death Comes in Yellow: Skarzysko-Kamienna Slave Labor Camp (Amsterdam, 1996), pp. 235–46.

29. Schwarz, nationalsozialistischen Lager, p. 86.

30. G. Lotfi KZ der Gestapo: Arbeitserziehungslager im Dritten Reich (Stuttgart, 2000), pp. 114–28, 440–41; Schwarz, nationalsozialistischen Lager, pp. 82–3.

31. R. Kubatzki Zwangsarbeiter-und Kriegsgefangenenlager: Standorte und Topographie in Berlin und im brandenburgischen Umland 1939 bis 194s (Berlin, 2000), p. 250 (the total was 1,175 camps); J. Schiey Nachbar Buchenwald: Die Stadt Weimar und ihr Konzentrationslager 1937–1945 (Cologne, 1999), pp. 139–44.

32. Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, pp. 120–21; D. Dwork and R. J. van Pelt Auschwitz: izyo to the Present (New York, 1996), pp. 202–7, 261–3; G. Aly and S. Heim Architects of Annihilation: Auschwitz and the Logic of Destruction (London, 2002), pp. 106–12.

33. Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, p. 230; Dwork and van Pelt, Auschwitz, p. 272.

34. E. Kogon, H. Langbein and A. Rückerl (eds) Nazi Mass Murder: a Documentary History of the Use of Poison Gas (New Haven, Conn., 1993), pp. 145–6.

35. Dwork and van Pelt, Auschwitz, p. 299.

36. Schwarz, nationalsozialistischen Lager, p. 211.

37. E. Bacon The Gulag at War: Stalin’s Forced Labour System in the Light of the Archives (London, 1994), pp. 73–6; Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, pp. 82–5 for full details of GUlag camp economic organization and output before 1941.

38. Bacon, Gulag at War, pp. 139–44; Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, pp. 94–5.

39. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, p. 16.

40. Bacon, Gulag at War, pp. 142–3.

41. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, p. 17.

42. Stettner, ‘Archipel GULag’, pp. 181, 205–6.

43. Stettner, ‘Archipel GULag’, pp. 203–4; Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 50–52.

44. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 17–18; Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, pp. 65–7.

45. Sofsky, Order of Terror, pp. 35–6; D. A. Hackett (ed.) The Buchenwald Report (Boulder, Colo., 1995), pp. 112–13.

46. Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, p. 230.

47. Kaienberg, ‘Vernichtung durch Arbeit, p. 60.

48. Kirstein, Konzentrationslager Natzweiler, p. 65; K. Orth ‘Gab es eine Lagergesellschaft? “Kriminelle” und politische Häftlinge im Konzentrationslager’, in N. Frei, S. Steinbacher and B. Wagner (eds) Ausbeutung, Vernichtung, Öffentlichkeit: neue Studien zur nationalsozialistischen Lagerpolitik (Munich, 2000), p. 119.

49. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 35–7; Bacon, Gulag at War, p. 153. In 1944 60.9 per cent were Russians, 11.1 per cent Ukrainians.

50. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, p. 22; J. A. Getty, G. T. Rittersporn and V. N. Zemskov ‘Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-war Years: A First Approach on the Basis of the Archival Evidence’, American Historical Review, 98 (1993), p. 1031–3; N. Werth and G. Moullec (eds) Rapports secrets sovietiques: La societe russe dans les documents confi dentiels 1921–1991 (Paris, 1994), p. 386, Report of the chief of the GUlag on the work of the GUlag during the Great Patriotic War, 10 March 1945, which gives fi gures for ‘counter-revolutionaries’ and common criminals, 1941–45.

51. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, p. 25.

52. C. Füllberg-Stolberg, M. Jung, R. Riebe and M. Scheitenberger (eds) Frauen in Konzentrationslagern Bergen-Beisen, Ravensbrück (Bremen, 1994), p. 79. On the proportion of ‘asocials’ see Orth, Das System der Konzentrationslager, pp. 51–3. In the late 1930s this proportion was high: 58 per cent at Sachsenhausen in 1938.

53. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 30–31; Stettner, ‘Archipel GULag’, pp. 202–3; On Akmolinsk camp, V. Shapovalov (ed.), Remembering the Darkness: Women in Soviet Prisons (Lanham, Md, 2001), p. 207.

54. J. Morrison Ravensbrück: Everyday Life in a Woman’s Concentration Camp (London, 2000), pp. 27–9, 86.

55. Kaienberg, ‘KZ-Haft und Wirtschaftsinteresse’, p. 51.

56. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 32–3; Schwarz, nationalsozialistischen Lager, pp. 84–6; Werth and Moullec, Rapports secrets, p. 387.

57. Shapovalov, Remembering the Darkness, p. 206.

58. M. Nahon Birkenau: Camp of Death (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1989), pp. 37–9.

59. Morrison, Ravensbriick, pp. 33–4.

60. Parvilahti, Beria’s Gardens, pp. 93–7.

61. Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, p. 135.

62. Dwork and van Pelt, Auschwitz, pp. 263–4.

63. M. T. Allen The Banality of Evil Reconsidered: SS Mid-level Managers of Extermination Through Work’, Central European History, 30 (1997), p. 263; see too A. Beyerchen ‘Rational Means and Irrational Ends: Thoughts on the Technology of Racism in the Third Reich’, Central European History, 30 (1997), pp. 386–402.

64. Parvilahti, Berief s Gardens, p. 95; D. Dallin and B. Nicolaevsky Forced Labor in Soviet Russia (London, 1947), pp. 13–14.

65. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 15–17.

66. Parvilahti, Bend’s Gardens, p. 126.

67. Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, pp. 164–5.

68. Nahon, Birkenau: Camp of Death, p. 53.

69. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor, pp. 6–7; Parvilahti, Berits Gardens, p. 98.

70. P. Barton U institution concentrationnaire en Russe 1930–1957 (Paris, 1959), p. 80; on norm competition in the camps see L. von Koerber Sowjetrussland kämpft gegen das Verbrechen (Berlin, 1933), pp. 24–5.

71. Dwork and van Pelt, Auschwitz, pp. 194–6; P. Steinberg Speak You Also: a Survivor’s Reckoning (London, 2001), pp. 66–71.

72. A. Solzhenitsyn One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (London, 1963), p. 143.

73. Sofsky, Order of Terror, p. 118; Nohan, Birkenau: Camp of Death, p. 39.

74. Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, pp. 114–16.

75. Parvilahti, Beria’s Gardens, pp. 109, 125.

76. See for example K. Dunin-Wasowicz Resistance in the Concentration Camps (Warsaw, 1982).

77. Morrison, Ravensbriick, pp. 130–33.

78. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, p. 31.

79. Morrison, Ravensbriick, p. 365; J. Bardach and K. Gleeson Man is Wolf to Man: Surviving the Gulag (Berkeley, Calif., 1998) pp. 191–3.

80. Steinberg, Speak You Also, p. 72.

81. Bardach and Gleeson, Man is Wolf to Man, pp. 227–8.

82. For example Parvilahti, Beria’s Gardens, pp. 118, 125; see too, Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft, p. 135.

83. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor, p. 6.

84. Bardach and Gleeson, Man is Wolf to Man, pp. 247–9.

85. Y. Shymko (ed.) For This Was I Born (Toronto, 1973), p. 41; D. Panin The Notebooks ofSologdin (New York, 1976).

86. Steinberg, Speak You Also, p. 77.

87. Morrison, Ravensbrück, pp. 289–91.

88. Parvilahti, Bend’s Gardens, pp. 99–100; Bardach and Gleeson, Man is Wolf to Man, p. 236.

89. Pohl, Stalinist Penal System, pp. 14–16; B. Perz Projekt Quarz: Steyr-Daimler-Puch und das Konzentrationslager Melk (Vienna, 1991), p. 300; Parvilahti, Beria’s Gardens, pp. 132–3.

90. Steinberg, Speak You Also, p. 22.

91. Barton, Vinstitution concentrationnaire, pp. 78–9; Bardach and Gleeson, Man is Wolf to Man, p. 213.

92. L. Crome Unbroken: Resistance and Survival in the Concentration Camps (London, 1988), pp. 54, 56–7; see too Kaienberg, ‘Vernichtung durch Arbeit’, p. 56.

93. Werth and Moullec, Rapports secrets, pp. 377–82: Report from N. Ezhov, March 1938 ‘on the state of a number of labour camps’; Report of the GUlag operational department, 17 May 1941 on the camp at Sredne-Belsk; Report of deputy chief of GUlag operational department, 23 October 1941 on rising mortality at Aktiubinsk.

94. Crome, Unbroken: Resistance and Survival, p. 62.

95. U. Herbert Best: Biographische Studien über Radikalismus, Weltanschauung und Vernunft 1903–1989 (Bonn, 1996), p. 151; Tuchel, ‘Dimensionen des Terrors’, p. 381.

96. Sofsky, Order of Terror, p. 16.

97. I. Müller Hitler’s Justice: the Courts of the Third Reich (London, 1991), p. 56.

98. M. Kárný ‘Das SS-Wirtschafts-Verwaltungshauptamt’, in Hamburger Stiftung zur Förderung von Wissenschaft und Kultur (ed.) ‘Deutsche Wirtschaft’: Zwangsarbeit Von KZ-Häftlingen für Industrie und Behörden (Hamburg, 1991) pp. 160–64; F. Piper ‘Industrieunternehmen als Initiatoren des Einsatzes von KZ-Häftlingen’, in Hamburger Stiftung, ‘Deutsche Wirtschaft’, pp. 97–103. Out of 500,000 workers approximately 230–250,000 worked in private sector fi rms.

99. Herbert, Best, pp. 169–70.

100. Barton, L’institution concentrationnaire, p. 56; Shapovalov, Remembering the Darkness, p. 207.

101. P. Levi The Drowned and the Saved (London, 1988), p. 100.

 

Заключение

1. P. Sorokin The Sociology of Revolution (New York, 1967) pp. 185–6.

2. V. M. Berezhkov At Stalin’s Side (New York, 1994), pp. 7, 72.

3. Berezhkov, At Stalin’s Side, p. 7.

4. See for example L. Dupeux Strategie communiste et dynamique conservatrice: essai sur les differents sens de Vexpression ‘National-Bolchevisme’ (Paris, 1976).

5. T. Todorov Hope and Memory: Refl ections on the Twentieth Century (London, 2003), p. 25 ff.

6. E. H. Vieler The Ideological Roots of German National Socialism (New York, 1999), p. 125; see also D. Gasman The Scientifi c Origins of National Socialism (London, 1971), pp. 147–65.

7. ‘The International Character of the October Revolution’ in J. Stalin Problems of Leninism (Moscow, 1947), pp. 198–203.

8. A. Ulam Expansion and Co-Existence: a History of Soviet Foreign Policy 1917–1967 (London, 1968) p. 78.

9. H. Mehringer Die NSDAP als politische Ausleseorganisation (Munich, 1938), p. 5.

10. W. Treue ‘Hitlers Denkschrift zum Vierjahresplan 1936’, Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 3 (1955), p. 201.

11. ‘Der Schlussrede des Führers auf dem Parteikongress 1934’ in G. Neesse Die Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (Stuttgart, 1935), p. 195.

12. Treue, ‘Denkschrift’, p. 202.

13. For details on the Gestapo’s Jewish offi ces see H. Berschel Bürokratie und Terror: Das Judenreferat der Gestapo Düsseldorf 1935–1945 (Essen, 2001).

14. H. Rauschning Hitler Speaks (London, 1939), p. 257.

15. P. Reidel ‘Aspekte ästhetischer Politik im NS-Staat’ in U. Hermann and U. Nassen (eds.) Formative Ästhetik im Nationalsozialismus. Intentionen, Medien und Praxisformen totalitärer ästhetischer Herrschaft und Beherrschung (Weinheim, 1994), p. 14.

16. G. C. Guins Soviet Law and Soviet Society (The Hague, 1954), p. 30. In a teacher’s manual from 1940 schoolchildren were to be instructed ‘to hate their country’s enemies’. See D. Brandenberger National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of Modern Russian National Identity 1931–1956 (Cambridge, Mass., 2002), p. 65.

17. See in general J. Stalin On the Opposition (Peking ed., 1974), speeches and articles from the 1920s on problems of party unity and party disagreements.

18. E. van Ree ‘Stalin’s Organic Theory of the Party’, Russian Review, 52 (1993), p. 52.

19. P. Stachura Gregor Strasser and the Rise of Nazism (London, 1983), p. 75.

20. Neesse, Nationalsozialistische Partei, p. 10.

21. See for example the discussion in I. Gutkin The Magic of Words: Symbolism, Futurism, Socialist Realism’ in B. G. Rosenthal The Occult in Russian and Soviet Culture (Ithaca, NY, 1997), pp. 241–4.

22. G. Alexopoulos Stalirfs Outcasts: Aliens, Citizens, and the Soviet State 1926–1936 (Ithaca, NY, 2002) esp. ch. 2.

23. T. Alkemeyer and A. Richantz ‘Inszenierte Körperträume: Reartikulation von Herrschaft und Selbstbeherrschung in Körperbildung des Faschismus’ in Hermann and Nassen, Formative Ästhetik, pp. 82–3.

24. See for example S. Plaggenborg ‘Gewalt und Militanz im Sowjetrussland 1919–1930’, Jahrbücher für die Geschichte Osteuropas, 44 (1996), pp. 409–30.

25. M. Pabst Staatsterrorismus: Theorie und Praxis kommunistischer Herrschaft (Graz, 1997), p. 15.

26. Stalin, Works, vol. 6, p. 121.

27. G. A. Wetter Dialectical Materialism: a Historical and Systematic Survey of Philosophy in the Soviet Union (New York, 1958), pp. 221–2.

28. F. Kroll Utopie als Ideologie: Geschichtsdenken und politisches Handeln im Dritten Reich (Paderborn, 1998), pp. 56–64, 84–8.

29. Uncensored Germany: Letters and News Sent Secretly from Germany to the German Freedom Party (London, 1940), p. 80, ‘Letter from a Tradesman’, September 1939.

30. A. Resis (ed.) Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics (Chicago, 1993), p. 264, interview 12 April 1973.

31. A. Gide Back from the U.S.S.R. (London, 1937), pp. 45, 48.

32. Gide, Back from the U.S.S.R., p. 45.

33. M. Heller Cogs in the Soviet Wheel: the Formation of Soviet Man (London, 1988), p. 287; see also the discussion on language in E. Naiman ‘Introduction’ to A. Platanov Happy Moscow (London, 2001), pp. xxxi – xxxvii.

34. V. Klemperer 7 Shall Bear Witness: the Diaries of Viktor Klemperer 1933–41 (London, 1998), pp. 227, 243.

35. S. Allen Comrades and Citizens (London, 1938), pp. 244, 301.

36. This is a point well-made in I. Halfi n ‘Poetics in the Archives: the Quest for “True” Bolshevik Documents’, Jahrbücher für die Geschichte Osteuropas, 51 (2003), pp. 84–9. Language, Halfi n argues, is itself ‘constitutitive’.

37. Allen, Comrades and Citizens, pp. 229,